Celtic Languages - User contributions [en]

Classical Gaelic Nominal Inflection

2026-02-22T18:34:14Z

Erisceres: Fixed the spelling of 'Stair na Gaeilge'

This page aims to detail the paradigmatic patterns and features of nominal forms found in Classical Gaelic, as listed in ''IGT'' ii §§ 1-207. The morphological details and patterns of usage will derive from the information provided in the tracts, McManus's chapter on Classical Gaelic in ''Stair na Gaeilge'', ''DIL'', and any other available resources which will be listed in the bibliography and referenced.

== ''IGT'' ii § 1 ({{seanchlo|fine}}) ==

Each of these forms may behave like both m. and f. ''jo''-/''jā''-stems in Classical Gaelic. Each form originated not only from either ''jo''- or ''jā''-stems, but also from other stems.

==== Paradigm ====
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! {{seanchlo|fine}}
! {{smallcaps|sg}}
! {{smallcaps|du}}
! {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|nom}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|voc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|acc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|gen}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋ}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|dat}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|finiḃ, fineaḋaiḃ}}
|}

==== List of Nouns ====

{{seanchlo|aicme}}, {{seanchlo|bine}}, {{seanchlo|buile}}, {{seanchlo|buille}}, {{seanchlo|cairde}}, {{seanchlo|céiliḋe}}, {{seanchlo|cruinde}}, {{seanchlo|cruine}} ('''{{smallcaps|sg}}''' only), {{seanchlo|fine}}, {{seanchlo|freagra}} (anomalous form), {{seanchlo|inṁe}}, {{seanchlo|loise [an tsaoġail]}}, {{seanchlo|maċaire}}, {{seanchlo|maicne}}, {{seanchlo|náire}}, {{seanchlo|tríoċa [ċéad]}}, {{seanchlo|triúċa ċéad}}

[[Category:Classical Gaelic]]
[[Category:Early Modern Irish]]
[[Category:Early Modern Gaelic]]

Category:Text corpora

2025-08-22T04:55:38Z

Erisceres: /* Irish */ added Corpas Náisiúnta na Gaeilge

A [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_corpus '''text corpus'''] is a large collection of (often as diverse as possible) texts in a given language. Text corpora are very useful for checking how often a given expression is used in a language (and which are rare or never occur), thus they might be a huge help to learners who want to check whether a certain construction is natural-sounding or not. They are also extremely useful when doing research about language grammar and how it changes over time. Many corpora contain also additional information about individual words (like their part-of-speech and other inflectional information when applicable, like grammatical case, gender, tense, mood…).

Below is a list of useful publicly-available corpora for Celtic languages.

== Brittonic ==

=== Breton ===

=== Cornish ===
* [https://www.akademikernewek.org.uk/corpus/?locale=kw#en_ Akademi Kernewek's Corpus search engine]
* [https://skrifakernewek.miraheze.org/wiki/Cornish_literature_by_year A list of Cornish language publications by year, both for traditional texts and the Revival]

=== Welsh ===

== Goidelic ==

=== Irish ===
* [http://corpas.focloir.ie ''Nua-Chorpas na hÉireann''] (''New Corpus for Ireland''), also known as the ''Foclóir.ie corpus''
:* '''requires registration''' (free-of-charge)
:* all kinds of modern texts (fiction, poetry, official documents, newspaper articles, etc. from 20th and 21st century) written by both native and non-native speakers
:* allows filtering by text type (native/non-native, specific dialect)
:* part-of-speech tagged
:* uses [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sketch_Engine Sketch Engine]
:* alternative new interface at [https://focloir.sketchengine.eu focloir.sketchengine.eu]
:* See [[Irish/Using Nua-Chorpas na hÉireann]] for some additional tips
* [http://corpas.ria.ie ''Corpas Stairiúil na Gaeilge''] (''Historical Irish Corpus''), also known as the ''RIA corpus''
:* publicly available
:* literary texts composed in Irish between 1600 and 1926
:* part-of-speech tagged but with limited search functionality
:* allows searching for words in original spelling and by their modern standardized forms
* [https://www.corpas.ie ''Corpas Náisiúnta na Gaeilge''] (''National Corpus of Irish''), also known as the ''Gaois corpus''
:* publicly available
:* all texts compiled for the corpus span the 2000-2024 period
:* part-of-speech tagged
:* uses [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sketch_Engine Sketch Engine]

=== Manx ===
* [https://corpus.gaelg.im/ Manx Corpus Search]
:* publicly available
:* over 600 texts between 1610 and present, accompanied by English translations
:* focus on pre-1908 native Manx literature with the aim to store '''everything''' written in Manx before 1908
:* open source, the search interface software hosted at [https://github.com/david-allison/manx-corpus-search https://github.com/david-allison/manx-corpus-search], corpus data at [https://github.com/david-allison/manx-search-data https://github.com/david-allison/manx-search-data]
:* if you need assistance, have a feature request, etc. you may contact the corpus’ maintainer on Github or on Celtic Languages Discord (Discord handle ''davida0813'')

=== Scottish Gaelic ===
* [https://dasg.ac.uk/corpus/ ''Corpas na Gàidhlig'' DASG]
:* publicly available
:* contains literary texts in Scottish Gaelic, from 12th century to 21st century (but mostly modern, 18th–21st c. texts; might be extended in the future with transcriptions of spoken language)
:* '''not''' part-of-speech tagged
:* based on [https://cwb.sourceforge.io/ Corpus Workbench (CWB)] with modified [https://cwb.sourceforge.io/cqpweb.php CQPWeb] interface
:* allows filtering by time period, geographical origin, particular text
:* allows complex queries using the CQP-syntax (but limited due to the lack of POS-tagging)
:* See [[Gaelic/Using Corpas na Gàidhlig]] for some additional tips

=== Classical Gaelic ===
* [https://app.sketchengine.eu/#dashboard?corpname=preloaded%2Ffiliochttcdv1 ''Irish Syllabic Poetry'' corpus]
:* corpus of Classical Gaelic bardic poetry
:* part-of-speech tagged (although very imperfect since based on tagging method for modern Irish)
:* uses non-normalized spelling (so finding a form might be difficult sometimes)
:* based on [https://bardic.celt.dias.ie/ Bardic Poetry Database]
:* uses [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sketch_Engine Sketch Engine]
* [http://corpas.ria.ie ''Historical Irish Corpus''] (corpus RIA) – mainly a Modern Irish corpus, but also useful for Early Modern texts and sometimes bardic poetry since it contains texts from 1600 and later, see under [[#Irish|Irish]]

=== Old Irish ===
* [https://chronhib.maynoothuniversity.ie/chronhibWebsite/tables ''Corpus Palaeo-Hibernicum''] – created by the ChronHib project
:* 78 Old Irish texts: OIr. glosses, Annals of Ulster, poems of Blathmac, and some tales
:* fully translated and with full annotations of morphological forms
:* it’s structured around a spreadsheet-like table interface – searching for specific forms requires displaying the '''whole''' table though (so choose the biggest “Results per Page” value at the bottom, beware that it may make it pretty laggy)
:* the corpus text is in the ''Sentences'' table, the ''Lemmata'' table is basically a glossary of all the words in the corpus, with translation and often etymological info, the ''Morphology'' table contains the whole corpus text broken down into morphological units with POS-tags and comments
:* it offers expected normalized spellings of corpus forms
:* the data can be exported to CSV files

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2025-07-18T19:43:51Z

Erisceres: Swapped some colours to match other articles; changed predicate to predicative; added further definitions.

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicative⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicative⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicative. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''. The copula always either directly exists or its existence is implied in certain structures., and is always followed by a predicative or subpredicative.

The '''predicative''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicative is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicative is the masculine noun ''{{color|Green|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicative that carries the syntactical stress. The predicative always either directly exists or its existence is implied in certain structures; the copula is always directly followed by the predicative or the subpredicative.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used for the subject, it is generally represented with a disjunctive pronoun. This pronoun agrees in gender and number with the predicative, being a direct reference to the predicative itself. Where the predicative consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Blue|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicative''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Green|P}}{{color|Blue|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Green|leabhar}} {{color|Blue|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Green|leabhar}} {{color|Blue|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Green|leabhar}} {{color|Blue|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicative''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicative pronoun''' ''{{color|LimeGreen|ea}}'' is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|LimeGreen|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Green|leabhar}} {{color|Blue|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|LimeGreen|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|LimeGreen|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Green|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|LimeGreen|p}}{{color|Green|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Green|leabhar}} {{color|Blue|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|LimeGreen|hea}}, {{color|Green|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicative interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Green|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification; rather, it could be said that the existence of the copula is implied within ''{{color|Green|cad}}'', retaining the '''⟨({{color|Red|C}}){{color|Green|P}}⟩''' structure. In this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|é}}'' – following the '''predicative interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Blue|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Blue|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Blue|é sin}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicative''' in question '''⟨({{color|Red|C}}){{color|Green|P}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|s}}{{color|Blue|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Green|Cad}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|é}} {{color|Blue|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Green|leabhar}} {{color|Blue|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicative''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicative''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicative pronoun''' in the original '''predicative''' position '''⟨{{color|Green|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|LimeGreen|p}}{{color|Blue|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Green|leabhar}} {{color|Blue|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|LimeGreen|hea}}; {{color|Green|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|LimeGreen|ea}} {{color|Blue|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicative''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicative pronoun''' ''{{color|Green|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Green|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Green|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Blue|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Green|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|LimeGreen|ea}} {{color|Blue|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Green|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Blue|é}}; {{color|Green|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|LimeGreen|ea}} {{color|Blue|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Green|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Blue|é}}, {{color|Green|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

An emphatic answer can also be given to a question if previous question insinuated the subject was a different item:

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Green|peann}} {{color|Blue|é seo}}?'' – “Is that a pen?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|LimeGreen|hea}}.'' – “No.”
* —''{{color|Green|Cad}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|é}} {{color|Blue|an rud é}}?'' – “What is it?”
* —''{{color|Green|Leabhar}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|LimeGreen|ea}} {{color|Blue|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicative ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicative ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicative ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicative pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicative pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.2
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,3 is it?4 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position because of the previous question which insinuated that it was a pencil. 
3 Emphatic position. 
4 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Ó Nualláin]]

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2025-07-18T19:11:44Z

Erisceres:

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicate that carries the syntactical stress.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used for the subject, it is generally represented with a disjunctive pronoun. This pronoun agrees in gender and number with the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicate''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. In this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é sin}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicate''' in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicate''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicate''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' in the original '''predicate''' position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicate''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicate pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}; {{color|Blue|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}, {{color|Blue|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

An emphatic answer can also be given to a question if previous question insinuated the subject was a different item:

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Is that a pen?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “No.”
* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é}}?'' – “What is it?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Leabhar}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicate ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicate ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicate ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.2
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,3 is it?4 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position because of the previous question which insinuated that it was a pencil. 
3 Emphatic position. 
4 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Ó Nualláin]]

Phonological and Morphological Developments in Gaelic

2024-11-29T03:38:55Z

Erisceres: /* Nasal Raising */

This page aims to explore various phonological and morphological developments across dialects of Modern Gaelic, and the historical structures whence they derive. In particular, the focus will often be on features of obscure interest where information in the academic realm is quite limited. Academic sources with such information will be referenced and presented in a bibliography under each relevant section.

The plan is to include the following features and even more over time:
* A Historical Representation of the Gaelic Article
* A Diachronic Overview of ''Gaoidhealg'' and Its Variants
* Vocative Inflections in Classical Gaelic
* Dual Inflections in Classical Gaelic
* Gaelic Plosive VOT and the Historical Development of Eclipsis
* Modern Reflexes of Medieval Vowels
* Consonant Clusters with Sonorants
* Unlenited Sonorants in Coda
* Proclitic Depalatalisation
* Forms with Vowel Hiatus
* Future/Conditional Verbal Morphology
* ''shid é'' < ''seo é''

== Nasal Raising ==

'''Summary of Nasal Raising Developments'''
* '''General Mechanism:''' A stressed vowel adjacent to a nasal consonant becomes nasalised and often raised. This contraction of the oral passage tends to occur across all Irish dialects, though it varies in prominence.
* '''Raising of {{IPA|[ɛ] > [ɪ]}}:''' The raising of {{IPA|[ɛ] > [ɪ]}} next to a nasal is widespread in Irish, appearing in words like ''nimh'', ''minic'', ''misde'', ''mise'', and others. This development began around five to six centuries ago. Borrowed words, such as ''printíseach'', also display this change. Exceptions exist, like ''meil'', which retains {{IPA|[ɛ]}} outside Connacht.
* '''Raising of {{IPA|[ɔ] > [ʊ]}}:''' Common examples include ''much'' for ''moch'' and ''cun'' for ''con''. Older forms like ''comas'' and ''comann'' evolved into ''cumas'' and ''cumann''. The use of ''chunnaic'' for ''chonnaic'' is documented as early as the sixteenth century.
* '''Raising of Long Vowels:''' In parts of Southern Ireland (notably Waterford, South Tipperary, and Kilkenny) and Connemara, {{IPA|[oː] > [uː]}}, as in ''nús'' from ''nós''. Similarly, {{IPA|[ɑː] > [ɔː]}}, as in ''lán'', ''lámh'', ''máthair''. These modifications are similar to patterns found in Scottish Gaelic. For the raising of {{IPA|[ɔː] > [oː]}} in Ulster Irish and Scottish Gaelic, see p. 176.
* '''Scottish Gaelic Comparisons:''' Scottish Gaelic exhibits similar modifications, with {{IPA|[ɛ] > [ɪ]}}, and {{IPA|[ɔ] > [ʊ]}}, as in ''chunnaic'' from ''chonnaic''. Scottish {{IPA|[aː]}}, when nasalised, is raised to {{IPA|[ɛː]}}, unlike Irish {{IPA|[ɑː] > [ɔː]}}.
* '''Manx Developments:''' Manx tends to retain {{IPA|[ɛ]}} where Irish underwent changes, such as in ''mennick'' and ''meshtey''.
* '''Influence on ''ao'':''' There was a general Gaelic development of the vowel ''ao'' of {{IPA|[ɯː] < [ɤː]}} as well as of {{IPA|[ɨː] < [ɘː]}}, driven by the tendency to raise vowel sounds under the influence of a neighbouring nasal consonant. This effect is noticeable in Scottish Gaelic where in Argyll, ''ao'' {{IPA|[ɤː]}} is not nasalised but raised to {{IPA|[ɯː]}} in certain words, such as ''naomh'', ''maoth'', ''maoin'', and ''naoi'', where the influence of neighbouring nasals is clear. In Arran and Cantire, ''ao'' has shifted to {{IPA|[iː] < [eː]}} under similar conditions. This suggests a broader raising pattern, initially occurring next to nasals but later generalised. Manx also shows a similar nasal raising to {{IPA|[uː]}} in words like ''naomh'' (now spelled ''noo'' in Manx).

'''Source:''' T. F. O'Rahilly, ''Irish Dialects Past and Present'', 1932, pp. 33-34, 176-177, 194-196.

Phonological and Morphological Developments in Gaelic

2024-11-29T03:28:13Z

Erisceres: Nasal Raising

This page aims to explore various phonological and morphological developments across dialects of Modern Gaelic, and the historical structures whence they derive. In particular, the focus will often be on features of obscure interest where information in the academic realm is quite limited. Academic sources with such information will be referenced and presented in a bibliography under each relevant section.

The plan is to include the following features and even more over time:
* A Historical Representation of the Gaelic Article
* A Diachronic Overview of ''Gaoidhealg'' and Its Variants
* Vocative Inflections in Classical Gaelic
* Dual Inflections in Classical Gaelic
* Gaelic Plosive VOT and the Historical Development of Eclipsis
* Modern Reflexes of Medieval Vowels
* Consonant Clusters with Sonorants
* Unlenited Sonorants in Coda
* Proclitic Depalatalisation
* Forms with Vowel Hiatus
* Future/Conditional Verbal Morphology
* ''shid é'' < ''seo é''

== Nasal Raising ==

'''Summary of Nasal Raising Developments'''
* '''General Mechanism:''' A stressed vowel adjacent to a nasal consonant becomes nasalised and often raised. This contraction of the oral passage tends to occur across all Irish dialects, though it varies in prominence.
* '''Raising of {{IPA|ɛ}} to {{IPA|ɪ}}:''' The raising of {{IPA|ɛ}} to {{IPA|ɪ}} next to a nasal is widespread in Irish, appearing in words like ''nimh'', ''minic'', ''misde'', ''mise'', and others. This development began around five to six centuries ago. Borrowed words, such as ''printíseach'', also display this change. Exceptions exist, like ''meil'', which retains {{IPA|ɛ}} outside Connacht.
* '''Raising of {{IPA|ɔ}} to {{IPA|ʊ}}:''' Common examples include ''much'' for ''moch'' and ''cun'' for ''con''. Older forms like ''comas'' and ''comann'' evolved into ''cumas'' and ''cumann''. The use of ''chunnaic'' for ''chonnaic'' is documented as early as the sixteenth century.
* '''Raising of Long Vowels:''' In parts of Southern Ireland (notably Waterford, South Tipperary, and Kilkenny) and Connemara, {{IPA|oː}} has been raised to {{IPA|uː}}, as in ''nús'' from ''nós''. Similarly, {{IPA|ɑː}} has shifted to {{IPA|ɔː}}, as in ''lán'', ''lámh'', ''máthair''. These modifications are similar to patterns found in Scottish Gaelic. For the raising of {{IPA|ɔː}} to {{IPA|oː}} in Ulster Irish and Scottish Gaelic, see p. 176.
* '''Scottish Gaelic Comparisons:''' Scottish Gaelic exhibits similar modifications, with {{IPA|ɛ}} raised to {{IPA|ɪ}}, and {{IPA|ɔ}} raised to {{IPA|ʊ}}, as in ''chunnaic'' from ''chonnaic''. Scottish {{IPA|aː}}, when nasalised, is raised to {{IPA|ɛː}}, unlike Irish {{IPA|ɑː}} which becomes {{IPA|ɔː}}.
* '''Manx Developments:''' Manx tends to retain {{IPA|ɛ}} where Irish underwent changes, such as in ''mennick'' and ''meshtey''.
* '''Influence on ''ao'':''' There was a general Gaelic development of the vowel ''ao'' of {{IPA|ɯː}} coming from {{IPA|ɤː}} as well as of {{IPA|ɨː}} from {{IPA|ɘː}}, driven by the tendency to raise vowel sounds under the influence of a neighbouring nasal consonant. This effect is noticeable in Scottish Gaelic where in Argyll, ''ao'' ({{IPA|ɤː}}) is not nasalised but raised to {{IPA|ɯː}} in certain words, such as ''naomh'', ''maoth'', ''maoin'', and ''naoi'', where the influence of neighbouring nasals is clear. In Arran and Cantire, ''ao'' has shifted to {{IPA|iː}} from {{IPA|eː}} under similar conditions. This suggests a broader raising pattern, initially occurring next to nasals but later generalised. Manx also shows a similar nasal raising to {{IPA|uː}} in words like ''naomh'' (now spelled ''noo'' in Manx).

'''Source:''' T. F. O'Rahilly, ''Irish Dialects Past and Present'', 1932, pp. 33-34, 176-177, 194-196.

Phonological and Morphological Developments in Gaelic

2024-11-25T22:15:29Z

Erisceres: Page creation and planning stage.

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-27T10:57:48Z

Erisceres: /* Borrowed Nouns: */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”<ref>The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by ''u''-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is necessary to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Exceptional Forms: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/eu, iu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/f′er/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/f′ir′/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/f′ir′/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/f′iur/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiuru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/f′iru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs, hence the distinction with the long vowels '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' from the short vowels '''{{IPA|/au/}}''', '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}'''.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-27T10:10:57Z

Erisceres: /* Historical Form of the Root Vowel: */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”<ref>The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by ''u''-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is necessary to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/eu, iu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/f′er/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/f′ir′/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/f′ir′/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/f′iur/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiuru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/f′iru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs, hence the distinction with the long vowels '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' from the short vowels '''{{IPA|/au/}}''', '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}'''.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T22:26:36Z

Erisceres: /* Examples */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”<ref>The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by ''u''-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/eu, iu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/f′er/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/f′ir′/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/f′ir′/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/f′iur/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiuru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/f′iru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs, hence the distinction with the long vowels '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' from the short vowels '''{{IPA|/au/}}''', '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}'''.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T22:14:40Z

Erisceres: /* Examples */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”<ref>The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by ''u''-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/eu, iu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑuʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiur/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiuru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs, hence the distinction with the long vowels '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' from the short vowels '''{{IPA|/au/}}''', '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}'''.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T22:12:15Z

Erisceres: /* o-Stems */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”<ref>The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by ''u''-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/eu, iu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs, hence the distinction with the long vowels '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' from the short vowels '''{{IPA|/au/}}''', '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}'''.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T22:08:18Z

Erisceres: /* Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”<ref>The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by ''u''-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/eu, iu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T22:07:25Z

Erisceres: /* Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”<ref>The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by ''u''-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/eu, iu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T22:04:34Z

Erisceres: /* Chronological Background */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or diphthongisation<ref>The alternations to vowels affected by u-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/eu, iu/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T21:51:52Z

Erisceres: /* Stressed Syllables: */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or diphthongisation<ref>The alternations to vowels affected by u-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/ɑu̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i, o/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T21:47:28Z

Erisceres: /* u-Infection: */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or diphthongisation<ref>The alternations to vowels affected by u-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where '''o''' diphthongises into '''ou''' under these conditions and generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/ɑu̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i, o/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T21:31:21Z

Erisceres: /* Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or diphthongisation<ref>The alternations to vowels affected by u-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

----

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

----

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where '''o''' diphthongises into '''ou''' under these conditions and generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: ''macc'', ''salm'', and ''folt'' do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

----

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/ɑu̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i, o/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T21:27:05Z

Erisceres: /* Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems */

= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or diphthongisation<ref>The alternations to vowels affected by u-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

=== Key Considerations: ===

==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====

* It is crucial to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

==== Borrowed Nouns: ====

* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===

==== Raising: ====

* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

==== Lowering: ====

* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.

=== ''u''-Infection: ===

==== Stressed Syllables: ====

* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where '''o''' diphthongises into '''ou''' under these conditions and generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
** Exceptions: ''macc'', ''salm'', and ''folt'' do not undergo ''u''-infection.

==== Unstressed Syllables: ====

* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Specific Declension Classes ===

==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

== Chronological Background ==

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/ɑu̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i, o/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

=== Examples ===

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== ''o''-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T21:04:39Z

Erisceres: /* Masculine o-Stems */

= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.

When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.

Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.

* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.

=== Masculine o-Stems ===

# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>

=== Neuter o-Stems ===

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

=== Chronological Background ===

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/ɑu̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i, o/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

==== Examples ====

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== o-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T20:59:30Z

Erisceres: /* Neuter o-Stems */

= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.

When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.

Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.

* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.

=== Masculine o-Stems ===

# The voc. sg. contains the reference root vowel. It is neither raised nor lowered.
# The gen. sg., prep. sg., nom. pl., acc. pl. and voc. pl. are all raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed ''a'' is ''u''-infected in the acc. and voc. pl.<ref>''u''-infection of other vowels, like in ''euchu'', are a Middle Irish development.</ref>

=== Neuter o-Stems ===

# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.

=== Chronological Background ===

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/ɑu̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i, o/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

==== Examples ====

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== o-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T20:56:56Z

Erisceres: /* Chronological Background */

= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.

When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.

Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.

* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.

=== Masculine o-Stems ===

# The voc. sg. contains the reference root vowel. It is neither raised nor lowered.
# The gen. sg., prep. sg., nom. pl., acc. pl. and voc. pl. are all raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed ''a'' is ''u''-infected in the acc. and voc. pl.<ref>''u''-infection of other vowels, like in ''euchu'', are a Middle Irish development.</ref>

=== Neuter o-Stems ===

# The gen. and prep. sg. are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.

=== Chronological Background ===

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/ɑu̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i, o/}}''' diphthongised to '''{{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.

==== Examples ====

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== o-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T20:42:06Z

Erisceres: /* Examples */

= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.

When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.

Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.

* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.

=== Masculine o-Stems ===

# The voc. sg. contains the reference root vowel. It is neither raised nor lowered.
# The gen. sg., prep. sg., nom. pl., acc. pl. and voc. pl. are all raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed ''a'' is ''u''-infected in the acc. and voc. pl.<ref>''u''-infection of other vowels, like in ''euchu'', are a Middle Irish development.</ref>

=== Neuter o-Stems ===

# The gen. and prep. sg. are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.

=== Chronological Background ===

Below is a list of the relevant developments in chronological order that help give context behind these vowel alternations in their final form.

# Unstressed long vowels were shortened, unless they were followed by {{IPA|/h/}}.
# Stressed interconsonantal {{IPA|/e, o/}} raised to {{IPA|/i, u/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of a high monophthong: {{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}.
## The following consonant must only be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed {{IPA|/ɑ/}} was diphthongised to {{IPA|/ɑu̯/}} when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u, uː/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/e, i, o/}} were diphthongised to {{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}} respectively when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u/}}, but not {{IPA|/uː/}}.
## The geminated {{IPA|/sː/}} in {{IPA|/esːu/}} blocked this diphthongisation of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} but allowed it for unstressed {{IPA|/e, i/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/i, u/}} lowered to {{IPA|/e, o/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of non-high back monophthongs: {{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}.
## The {{IPA|/n̪ːd/}} in {{IPA|/in̪ːdɑ/}} blocked this lowering of {{IPA|/i/}}.
# Final {{IPA|/h/}} shifted to the following word or disappeared altogether.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs underwent reduction in quality, becoming {{IPA|/ə/}}, and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became {{IPA|/u/}}.

==== Examples ====

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== o-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T20:39:03Z

Erisceres: /* Examples */

= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.

When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.

Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.

* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.

=== Masculine o-Stems ===

# The voc. sg. contains the reference root vowel. It is neither raised nor lowered.
# The gen. sg., prep. sg., nom. pl., acc. pl. and voc. pl. are all raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed ''a'' is ''u''-infected in the acc. and voc. pl.<ref>''u''-infection of other vowels, like in ''euchu'', are a Middle Irish development.</ref>

=== Neuter o-Stems ===

# The gen. and prep. sg. are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.

=== Chronological Background ===

Below is a list of the relevant developments in chronological order that help give context behind these vowel alternations in their final form.

# Unstressed long vowels were shortened, unless they were followed by {{IPA|/h/}}.
# Stressed interconsonantal {{IPA|/e, o/}} raised to {{IPA|/i, u/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of a high monophthong: {{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}.
## The following consonant must only be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed {{IPA|/ɑ/}} was diphthongised to {{IPA|/ɑu̯/}} when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u, uː/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/e, i, o/}} were diphthongised to {{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}} respectively when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u/}}, but not {{IPA|/uː/}}.
## The geminated {{IPA|/sː/}} in {{IPA|/esːu/}} blocked this diphthongisation of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} but allowed it for unstressed {{IPA|/e, i/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/i, u/}} lowered to {{IPA|/e, o/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of non-high back monophthongs: {{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}.
## The {{IPA|/n̪ːd/}} in {{IPA|/in̪ːdɑ/}} blocked this lowering of {{IPA|/i/}}.
# Final {{IPA|/h/}} shifted to the following word or disappeared altogether.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs underwent reduction in quality, becoming {{IPA|/ə/}}, and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became {{IPA|/u/}}.

==== Examples ====

* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ːa/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ːɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ːu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuːh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲer/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== o-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T20:34:16Z

Erisceres: /* Examples */

= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.

When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.

Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.

* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.

=== Masculine o-Stems ===

# The voc. sg. contains the reference root vowel. It is neither raised nor lowered.
# The gen. sg., prep. sg., nom. pl., acc. pl. and voc. pl. are all raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed ''a'' is ''u''-infected in the acc. and voc. pl.<ref>''u''-infection of other vowels, like in ''euchu'', are a Middle Irish development.</ref>

=== Neuter o-Stems ===

# The gen. and prep. sg. are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.

=== Chronological Background ===

Below is a list of the relevant developments in chronological order that help give context behind these vowel alternations in their final form.

# Unstressed long vowels were shortened, unless they were followed by {{IPA|/h/}}.
# Stressed interconsonantal {{IPA|/e, o/}} raised to {{IPA|/i, u/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of a high monophthong: {{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}.
## The following consonant must only be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed {{IPA|/ɑ/}} was diphthongised to {{IPA|/ɑu̯/}} when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u, uː/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/e, i, o/}} were diphthongised to {{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}} respectively when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u/}}, but not {{IPA|/uː/}}.
## The geminated {{IPA|/sː/}} in {{IPA|/esːu/}} blocked this diphthongisation of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} but allowed it for unstressed {{IPA|/e, i/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/i, u/}} lowered to {{IPA|/e, o/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of non-high back monophthongs: {{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}.
## The {{IPA|/n̪ːd/}} in {{IPA|/in̪ːdɑ/}} blocked this lowering of {{IPA|/i/}}.
# Final {{IPA|/h/}} shifted to the following word or disappeared altogether.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs underwent reduction in quality, becoming {{IPA|/ə/}}, and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became {{IPA|/u/}}.

==== Examples ====

* '''{{smallcaps|NOM.SG}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ːa/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑl̪ːɑh/}}'''
* {{smallcaps|DAT.SG}} ''baull'' {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuː/}}
* acc. pl. ''baullu'' {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuːh/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuːh/}}

* nom. sg. ''fer'' {{IPA|/ɸʲer/}} < {{IPA|/werɑ/}} < {{IPA|/werɑh/}} < {{IPA|/wirɑh/}}
* voc. sg. ''fir'' {{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}} < {{IPA|/wire/}}
* gen. sg. ''fir'' {{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}} < {{IPA|/wiri/}} < {{IPA|/wiriː/}}
* prep. sg. ''fiur'' {{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}} < {{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}} < {{IPA|/wiru/}} < {{IPA|/wiruː/}}
* acc. pl. ''firu'' {{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}} < {{IPA|/wiruː/}} < {{IPA|/wiruːh/}}

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== o-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T20:29:34Z

Erisceres: /* o-Stems */

= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.

When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.

Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.

* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.

=== Masculine o-Stems ===

# The voc. sg. contains the reference root vowel. It is neither raised nor lowered.
# The gen. sg., prep. sg., nom. pl., acc. pl. and voc. pl. are all raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed ''a'' is ''u''-infected in the acc. and voc. pl.<ref>''u''-infection of other vowels, like in ''euchu'', are a Middle Irish development.</ref>

=== Neuter o-Stems ===

# The gen. and prep. sg. are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.

=== Chronological Background ===

Below is a list of the relevant developments in chronological order that help give context behind these vowel alternations in their final form.

# Unstressed long vowels were shortened, unless they were followed by {{IPA|/h/}}.
# Stressed interconsonantal {{IPA|/e, o/}} raised to {{IPA|/i, u/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of a high monophthong: {{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}.
## The following consonant must only be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed {{IPA|/ɑ/}} was diphthongised to {{IPA|/ɑu̯/}} when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u, uː/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/e, i, o/}} were diphthongised to {{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}} respectively when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u/}}, but not {{IPA|/uː/}}.
## The geminated {{IPA|/sː/}} in {{IPA|/esːu/}} blocked this diphthongisation of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} but allowed it for unstressed {{IPA|/e, i/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/i, u/}} lowered to {{IPA|/e, o/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of non-high back monophthongs: {{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}.
## The {{IPA|/n̪ːd/}} in {{IPA|/in̪ːdɑ/}} blocked this lowering of {{IPA|/i/}}.
# Final {{IPA|/h/}} shifted to the following word or disappeared altogether.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs underwent reduction in quality, becoming {{IPA|/ə/}}, and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became {{IPA|/u/}}.

==== Examples ====

* nom. sg. ''ball'' {{IPA|/bɑl̪ː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːa/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːɑh/}}
* prep. sg. ''baull'' {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuː/}}
* acc. pl. ''baullu'' {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuːh/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuːh/}}

* nom. sg. ''fer'' {{IPA|/ɸʲer/}} < {{IPA|/werɑ/}} < {{IPA|/werɑh/}} < {{IPA|/wirɑh/}}
* voc. sg. ''fir'' {{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}} < {{IPA|/wire/}}
* gen. sg. ''fir'' {{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}} < {{IPA|/wiri/}} < {{IPA|/wiriː/}}
* prep. sg. ''fiur'' {{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}} < {{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}} < {{IPA|/wiru/}} < {{IPA|/wiruː/}}
* acc. pl. ''firu'' {{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}} < {{IPA|/wiruː/}} < {{IPA|/wiruːh/}}

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== o-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology

2024-08-17T20:28:33Z

Erisceres: /* Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems */

= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =

== Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.

When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.

Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.

* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.

=== Masculine o-Stems ===

# The voc. sg. contains the reference root vowel. It is neither raised nor lowered.
# The gen. sg., prep. sg., nom. pl., acc. pl. and voc. pl. are all raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
# Only stressed ''a'' is ''u''-infected in the acc. and voc. pl.<ref>''u''-infection of other vowels, like in ''euchu'', are a Middle Irish development.</ref>

=== Neuter o-Stems ===

# The gen. and prep. sg. are raised.
# All other forms are lowered.
# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.

=== Chronological Background ===

Below is a list of the relevant developments in chronological order that help give context behind these vowel alternations in their final form.

# Unstressed long vowels were shortened, unless they were followed by {{IPA|/h/}}.
# Stressed interconsonantal {{IPA|/e, o/}} raised to {{IPA|/i, u/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of a high monophthong: {{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}.
## The following consonant must only be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
# Stressed {{IPA|/ɑ/}} was diphthongised to {{IPA|/ɑu̯/}} when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u, uː/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/e, i, o/}} were diphthongised to {{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}} respectively when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u/}}, but not {{IPA|/uː/}}.
## The geminated {{IPA|/sː/}} in {{IPA|/esːu/}} blocked this diphthongisation of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} but allowed it for unstressed {{IPA|/e, i/}}.
# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/i, u/}} lowered to {{IPA|/e, o/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of non-high back monophthongs: {{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}.
## The {{IPA|/n̪ːd/}} in {{IPA|/in̪ːdɑ/}} blocked this lowering of {{IPA|/i/}}.
# Final {{IPA|/h/}} shifted to the following word or disappeared altogether.
# Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
# Final long vowels shortened.
# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs underwent reduction in quality, becoming {{IPA|/ə/}}, and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became {{IPA|/u/}}.

==== Examples ====

* nom. sg. ''ball'' {{IPA|/bɑl̪ː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːa/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːɑh/}}
* prep. sg. ''baull'' {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuː/}}
* acc. pl. ''baullu'' {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuːh/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuːh/}}

* nom. sg. ''fer'' {{IPA|/ɸʲer/}} < {{IPA|/werɑ/}} < {{IPA|/werɑh/}} < {{IPA|/wirɑh/}}
* voc. sg. ''fir'' {{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}} < {{IPA|/wire/}}
* gen. sg. ''fir'' {{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}} < {{IPA|/wiri/}} < {{IPA|/wiriː/}}
* prep. sg. ''fiur'' {{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}} < {{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}} < {{IPA|/wiru/}} < {{IPA|/wiruː/}}
* acc. pl. ''firu'' {{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}} < {{IPA|/wiruː/}} < {{IPA|/wiruːh/}}

== Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==

=== o-Stems ===

# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iːu̯/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

[[Category:Old Irish]]

Old Irish/Morphology/Nominal Proclitics and Particles

2024-03-04T23:42:40Z

Erisceres:

A general guide to clitic and particle morphemes, allomorphs and morphosyntactical structures in Old Irish noun phrases.

== The Vocative Particle ==

Nouns in the {{smallcaps|voc}} are always preceded by the {{smallcaps|voc}} particle {{seanchlo|a}}L (var. {{seanchlo|á}}L), e.g. {{seanchlo|a ḟir}} ‘o man’. There is no inflectional variation in the particle and it only lenites.

== The Dual Numeral ==

Nouns in the {{smallcaps|du}} are always preceded by the {{smallcaps|du}} numeral.

The {{smallcaps|masc}} form of the {{smallcaps|du}} is {{seanchlo|da}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}L) in the {{smallcaps|nom}}, {{smallcaps|acc}} and {{smallcaps|gen}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da ḟer}} ‘two men/of two men’.

The {{smallcaps|neut}} form of the {{smallcaps|du}} is {{seanchlo|da}}N (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}N) in the {{smallcaps|nom}}, {{smallcaps|acc}} and {{smallcaps|gen}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da n-armm}} ‘two weapons/of two weapons’.

The {{smallcaps|fem}} form of the {{smallcaps|du}} is {{seanchlo|di}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dí}}L) in the {{smallcaps|nom}} and {{smallcaps|acc}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|di thúaith}} ‘two tribes’. The {{smallcaps|fem}} form of the {{smallcaps|du}} is {{seanchlo|da}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}L) in the {{smallcaps|gen}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da thúath}} ‘of two tribes’.

The {{smallcaps|masc}}, {{smallcaps|neut}} and {{smallcaps|fem}} form of the {{smallcaps|du}} is {{seanchlo|dib}}N (var. {{seanchlo|díb}}N, {{seanchlo|deib}}N) in the {{smallcaps|dat}}, which is always preceded by a preposition (or a combination of a preposition and the article), e.g. {{seanchlo|la dib n-armm}} ‘with two weapons’.

The {{smallcaps|du}} never applies to nouns in the {{smallcaps|voc}}; the {{smallcaps|pl}} form of the noun is used instead.

Old Irish/Morphology/Nominal Proclitics and Particles

2024-03-04T23:37:39Z

Erisceres:

A general guide to clitic and particle morphemes, allomorphs and morphosyntactical structures in Old Irish noun phrases.

== The Vocative Particle ==

Nouns in the {{smallcaps|vocative}} are always preceded by the {{smallcaps|vocative}} particle {{seanchlo|a}}L (var. {{seanchlo|á}}L), e.g. {{seanchlo|a ḟir}} ‘o man’. There is no inflectional variation in the particle and it only lenites.

== The Dual Numeral ==

Nouns in the {{smallcaps|dual}} are always preceded by the {{smallcaps|dual}} numeral.

The {{smallcaps|masculine}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|da}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}L) in the {{smallcaps|nominative}}, {{smallcaps|accusative}} and {{smallcaps|genitive}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da ḟer}} ‘two men/of two men’.

The {{smallcaps|neuter}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|da}}N (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}N) in the {{smallcaps|nominative}}, {{smallcaps|accusative}} and {{smallcaps|genitive}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da n-armm}} ‘two weapons/of two weapons’.

The {{smallcaps|feminine}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|di}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dí}}L) in the {{smallcaps|nominative}} and {{smallcaps|accusative}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|di thúaith}} ‘two tribes’. The {{smallcaps|feminine}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|da}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}L) in the {{smallcaps|genitive}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da thúath}} ‘of two tribes’.

The {{smallcaps|masculine}}, {{smallcaps|neuter}} and {{smallcaps|feminine}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|dib}}N (var. {{seanchlo|díb}}N, {{seanchlo|deib}}N) in the {{smallcaps|dative}}, which is always preceded by a preposition (or a combination of a preposition and the article), e.g. {{seanchlo|la dib n-armm}} ‘with two weapons’.

The {{smallcaps|dual}} never applies to nouns in the {{smallcaps|vocative}}; the {{smallcaps|plural}} form of the noun is used instead.

Old Irish/Morphology/Nominal Proclitics and Particles

2024-03-04T23:27:04Z

Erisceres: Page creation; vocative particle; dual numeal.

A general guide to clitic and particle morphemes, allomorphs and morphosyntactical structures in Old Irish noun phrases.

= The Vocative Particle =

Nouns in the {{smallcaps|vocative}} are always preceded by the {{smallcaps|vocative}} particle {{seanchlo|a}}L (var. {{seanchlo|á}}L), e.g. {{seanchlo|a ḟir}} ‘o man’. There is no inflectional variation in the particle and it only lenites.

= The Dual Numeral =

Nouns in the {{smallcaps|dual}} are always preceded by the {{smallcaps|dual}} numeral.

The {{smallcaps|masculine}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|da}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}L) in the {{smallcaps|nominative}}, {{smallcaps|accusative}} and {{smallcaps|genitive}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da ḟer}} ‘two men/of two men’.

The {{smallcaps|neuter}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|da}}N (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}N) in the {{smallcaps|nominative}}, {{smallcaps|accusative}} and {{smallcaps|genitive}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da n-armm}} ‘two weapons/of two weapons’.

The {{smallcaps|feminine}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|di}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dí}}L) in the {{smallcaps|nominative}} and {{smallcaps|accusative}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|di thúaith}} ‘two tribes’. The {{smallcaps|feminine}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|da}}L (var. {{seanchlo|dá}}L) in the {{smallcaps|genitive}}, e.g. {{seanchlo|da thúath}} ‘of two tribes’.

The {{smallcaps|masculine}}, {{smallcaps|neuter}} and {{smallcaps|feminine}} form of the {{smallcaps|dual}} is {{seanchlo|dib}}N (var. {{seanchlo|díb}}N, {{seanchlo|deib}}N) in the {{smallcaps|dative}}, which is always preceded by a preposition (or a combination of a preposition and the article), e.g. {{seanchlo|la dib n-armm}} ‘with two weapons’.

The {{smallcaps|dual}} never applies to nouns in the {{smallcaps|vocative}}; the {{smallcaps|plural}} form of the noun is used instead.

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2024-02-16T21:30:08Z

Erisceres: /* Emphatic Classification Clauses */

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicate that carries the syntactical stress.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicate''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. In this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é sin}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicate''' in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicate''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicate''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' in the original '''predicate''' position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicate''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicate pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}; {{color|Blue|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}, {{color|Blue|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

An emphatic answer can also be given to a question if previous question insinuated the subject was a different item:

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Is that a pen?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “No.”
* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é}}?'' – “What is it?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Leabhar}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicate ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicate ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicate ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.2
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,3 is it?4 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position because of the previous question which insinuated that it was a pencil. 
3 Emphatic position. 
4 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Ó Nualláin]]

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2024-02-16T21:29:50Z

Erisceres: /* Exercises */

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicate that carries the syntactical stress.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicate''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. In this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é sin}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicate''' in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicate''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicate''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' in the original '''predicate''' position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicate''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicate pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}; {{color|Blue|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}, {{color|Blue|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

An emphatic answer can also be given to a question if previous question insinuated the subject is a different item:

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Is that a pen?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “No.”
* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é}}?'' – “What is it?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Leabhar}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicate ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicate ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicate ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.2
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,3 is it?4 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position because of the previous question which insinuated that it was a pencil. 
3 Emphatic position. 
4 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Ó Nualláin]]

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2024-02-16T21:01:46Z

Erisceres: /* Emphatic Classification Clauses */

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicate that carries the syntactical stress.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicate''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. In this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é sin}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicate''' in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicate''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicate''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' in the original '''predicate''' position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicate''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicate pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}; {{color|Blue|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}, {{color|Blue|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

An emphatic answer can also be given to a question if previous question insinuated the subject is a different item:

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Is that a pen?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “No.”
* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é}}?'' – “What is it?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Leabhar}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicate ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicate ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicate ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,2 is it?3 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position. 
3 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Ó Nualláin]]

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2024-02-16T20:46:49Z

Erisceres: /* Emphatic Classification Clauses */

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicate that carries the syntactical stress.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicate''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. In this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é sin}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicate''' in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicate''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicate''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' in the original '''predicate''' position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicate''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicate pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}; {{color|Blue|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}, {{color|Blue|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

The following question can also be answered with an emphatic answer:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é}}?'' – “What is it?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Leabhar}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicate ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicate ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicate ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,2 is it?3 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position. 
3 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Ó Nualláin]]

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2024-02-16T20:33:27Z

Erisceres: /* Simple Classification Clauses */

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicate that carries the syntactical stress.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicate''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. In this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é sin}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicate''' in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicate''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicate''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' in the original '''predicate''' position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicate''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicate pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}; {{color|Blue|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}, {{color|Blue|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicate ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicate ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicate ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,2 is it?3 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position. 
3 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Ó Nualláin]]

Classical Gaelic Nominal Inflection

2024-02-12T17:23:38Z

Erisceres:

This page aims to detail the paradigmatic patterns and features of nominal forms found in Classical Gaelic, as listed in ''IGT'' ii §§ 1-207. The morphological details and patterns of usage will derive from the information provided in the tracts, McManus's chapter on Classical Gaelic in ''Stair na Gailge'', ''DIL'', and any other available resources which will be listed in the bibliography and referenced.

== ''IGT'' ii § 1 ({{seanchlo|fine}}) ==

Each of these forms may behave like both m. and f. ''jo''-/''jā''-stems in Classical Gaelic. Each form originated not only from either ''jo''- or ''jā''-stems, but also from other stems.

==== Paradigm ====
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! {{seanchlo|fine}}
! {{smallcaps|sg}}
! {{smallcaps|du}}
! {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|nom}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|voc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|acc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|gen}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋ}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|dat}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|finiḃ, fineaḋaiḃ}}
|}

==== List of Nouns ====

{{seanchlo|aicme}}, {{seanchlo|bine}}, {{seanchlo|buile}}, {{seanchlo|buille}}, {{seanchlo|cairde}}, {{seanchlo|céiliḋe}}, {{seanchlo|cruinde}}, {{seanchlo|cruine}} ('''{{smallcaps|sg}}''' only), {{seanchlo|fine}}, {{seanchlo|freagra}} (anomalous form), {{seanchlo|inṁe}}, {{seanchlo|loise [an tsaoġail]}}, {{seanchlo|maċaire}}, {{seanchlo|maicne}}, {{seanchlo|náire}}, {{seanchlo|tríoċa [ċéad]}}, {{seanchlo|triúċa ċéad}}

[[Category:Classical Gaelic]]
[[Category:Early Modern Irish]]
[[Category:Early Modern Gaelic]]

Classical Gaelic Nominal Inflection

2024-02-12T16:59:22Z

Erisceres:

This page aims to detail the paradigmatic patterns and features of nominal forms found in Classical Gaelic, as listed in ''IGT'' ii §§ 1-207. The morphological details and patterns of usage will derive from the information provided in the tracts, MacManus's chapter on Classical Gaelic in ''Stair na Gailge'', ''DIL'', and any other available resources which will be listed in the bibliography and referenced.

== ''IGT'' ii § 1 ({{seanchlo|fine}}) ==

Each of these forms may behave like both m. and f. ''jo''-/''jā''-stems in Classical Gaelic. Each form originated not only from either ''jo''- or ''jā''-stems, but also from other stems.

==== Paradigm ====
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! {{seanchlo|fine}}
! {{smallcaps|sg}}
! {{smallcaps|du}}
! {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|nom}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|voc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|acc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|gen}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋ}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|dat}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|finiḃ, fineaḋaiḃ}}
|}

==== List of Nouns ====

{{seanchlo|aicme}}, {{seanchlo|bine}}, {{seanchlo|buile}}, {{seanchlo|buille}}, {{seanchlo|cairde}}, {{seanchlo|céiliḋe}}, {{seanchlo|cruinde}}, {{seanchlo|cruine}} ('''{{smallcaps|sg}}''' only), {{seanchlo|fine}}, {{seanchlo|freagra}} (anomalous form), {{seanchlo|inṁe}}, {{seanchlo|loise [an tsaoġail]}}, {{seanchlo|maċaire}}, {{seanchlo|maicne}}, {{seanchlo|náire}}, {{seanchlo|tríoċa [ċéad]}}, {{seanchlo|triúċa ċéad}}

[[Category:Classical Gaelic]]
[[Category:Early Modern Irish]]
[[Category:Early Modern Gaelic]]

Classical Gaelic Nominal Inflection

2024-02-12T16:59:09Z

Erisceres: /* IGT ii § 1 ({{seanchlo|fine}}) */

This page aims to detail the paradigmatic patterns and features of nominal forms found in Classical Gaelic, as listed in ''IGT'' ii §§ 1-207. The morphological details and patterns of usage will derive from the information provided in the tracts, MacManus's chapter on Classical Gaelic in ''Stair na Gailge'', *DIL*, and any other available resources which will be listed in the bibliography and referenced.

== ''IGT'' ii § 1 ({{seanchlo|fine}}) ==

Each of these forms may behave like both m. and f. ''jo''-/''jā''-stems in Classical Gaelic. Each form originated not only from either ''jo''- or ''jā''-stems, but also from other stems.

==== Paradigm ====
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! {{seanchlo|fine}}
! {{smallcaps|sg}}
! {{smallcaps|du}}
! {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|nom}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|voc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|acc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|gen}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋ}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|dat}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|finiḃ, fineaḋaiḃ}}
|}

==== List of Nouns ====

{{seanchlo|aicme}}, {{seanchlo|bine}}, {{seanchlo|buile}}, {{seanchlo|buille}}, {{seanchlo|cairde}}, {{seanchlo|céiliḋe}}, {{seanchlo|cruinde}}, {{seanchlo|cruine}} ('''{{smallcaps|sg}}''' only), {{seanchlo|fine}}, {{seanchlo|freagra}} (anomalous form), {{seanchlo|inṁe}}, {{seanchlo|loise [an tsaoġail]}}, {{seanchlo|maċaire}}, {{seanchlo|maicne}}, {{seanchlo|náire}}, {{seanchlo|tríoċa [ċéad]}}, {{seanchlo|triúċa ċéad}}

[[Category:Classical Gaelic]]
[[Category:Early Modern Irish]]
[[Category:Early Modern Gaelic]]

Classical Gaelic Nominal Inflection

2024-02-12T16:58:22Z

Erisceres: /* IGT ii § 1 ({{seanchlo|fine}}) */

This page aims to detail the paradigmatic patterns and features of nominal forms found in Classical Gaelic, as listed in ''IGT'' ii §§ 1-207. The morphological details and patterns of usage will derive from the information provided in the tracts, MacManus's chapter on Classical Gaelic in ''Stair na Gailge'', *DIL*, and any other available resources which will be listed in the bibliography and referenced.

== ''IGT'' ii § 1 ({{seanchlo|fine}}) ==

Each of these forms may behave like both m. and f. ''jo''-/''jā''-stems in Classical Gaelic. Each form originated not only from either ''jo'- or ''jā''-stems, but also from other stems.

==== Paradigm ====
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! {{seanchlo|fine}}
! {{smallcaps|sg}}
! {{smallcaps|du}}
! {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|nom}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|voc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|acc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|gen}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋ}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|dat}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|finiḃ, fineaḋaiḃ}}
|}

==== List of Nouns ====

{{seanchlo|aicme}}, {{seanchlo|bine}}, {{seanchlo|buile}}, {{seanchlo|buille}}, {{seanchlo|cairde}}, {{seanchlo|céiliḋe}}, {{seanchlo|cruinde}}, {{seanchlo|cruine}} ('''{{smallcaps|sg}}''' only), {{seanchlo|fine}}, {{seanchlo|freagra}} (anomalous form), {{seanchlo|inṁe}}, {{seanchlo|loise [an tsaoġail]}}, {{seanchlo|maċaire}}, {{seanchlo|maicne}}, {{seanchlo|náire}}, {{seanchlo|tríoċa [ċéad]}}, {{seanchlo|triúċa ċéad}}

[[Category:Classical Gaelic]]
[[Category:Early Modern Irish]]
[[Category:Early Modern Gaelic]]

Classical Gaelic Nominal Inflection

2024-02-12T16:56:27Z

Erisceres: Created page with "This page aims to detail the paradigmatic patterns and features of nominal forms found in Classical Gaelic, as listed in ''IGT'' ii §§ 1-207. The morphological details and p..."

This page aims to detail the paradigmatic patterns and features of nominal forms found in Classical Gaelic, as listed in ''IGT'' ii §§ 1-207. The morphological details and patterns of usage will derive from the information provided in the tracts, MacManus's chapter on Classical Gaelic in ''Stair na Gailge'', *DIL*, and any other available resources which will be listed in the bibliography and referenced.

== ''IGT'' ii § 1 ({{seanchlo|fine}}) ==

Each of these forms may behave like both m. and f. ''jo''-/''jā''-stems in Classical Gaelic. Each form originated not only from either ''jo'- or ''jā''-stems, but also from other stems.

==== Paradigm ====
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! {{seanchlo|fine}}
! {{smallcaps|sg}}
! {{smallcaps|du}}
! {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|nom}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|voc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋa}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|acc}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineada}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|gen}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine, fineaḋ}}
|-
! style="font-weight:bold;" | {{smallcaps|dat}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|fine}}
| {{seanchlo|finiḃ, fineaḋaiḃ}}
|}

==== List of Nouns ====

{{seanchlo|aicme}}, {{seanchlo|bine}}, {{seanchlo|buile}}, {{seanchlo|buille}}, {{seanchlo|cairde}}, {{seanchlo|céiliḋe}}, {{seanchlo|cruinde}}, {{seanchlo|cruine}} ('''{{smallcaps|sg}}''' only), {{seanchlo|fine}}, {{seanchlo|freagra}} (anomalous form), {{seanchlo|inṁe}}, {{seanchlo|loise [an tsaoġail]}}, {{seanchlo|maċaire}}, {{seanchlo|maicne}}, {{seanchlo|náire}}, {{seanchlo|tríoċa [ċéad]}}, {{seanchlo|triúċa ċéad}}

[[Category:Classical Gaelic]]
[[Category:Early Modern Irish]]
[[Category:Early Modern Gaelic]]

Gaelic Metrics

2024-02-10T17:08:42Z

Erisceres: Created page with "This page will detail Gaelic metrics and how they differed throughout the centuries with examples. = Bibliography = * Meyer, K. (1909). ''A Primer of Irish Metrics''. School..."

This page will detail Gaelic metrics and how they differed throughout the centuries with examples.

= Bibliography =

* Meyer, K. (1909). ''A Primer of Irish Metrics''. School of Irish Learning.
* Ó Duinnín, P. (1902). ''Amhráin Eoghain Ruaidh Uí Shúilleabháin'' (an dara heagar). Connradh na Gaedhilge.

Irish/Déise Irish

2024-01-09T20:10:34Z

Erisceres: /* RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta */

The main page for describing the Déise dialect of Irish

= Morphosyntax =

== Verbs ==

=== Analytic and Synthetic Forms ===

==== South Tipperary ====

In the variety of Déise Irish that was spoken in South Tipperary, the following conjugations of the verb ''bí'' along with the most typical analytic and synthetic forms are given: <ref group="note" name="South Tipp verbs"></ref>{{#tag:ref|Ó Maolchathaigh specifically details the paradigms for the forms ''bhí'', ''thá'', ''beidh'', ''bheadh'' and ''bhíodh'' (alongside a paradigm for ''bhuail'' which functions exactly the same as the paradigm for ''bhí'').<ref name="ÓMunp320">Ó Maolchathaigh unpublished, p. 320</ref> The remaining paradigms are retrieved elsewhere<ref name="W82p44">Wagner 1982, p. 44</ref> or presumed by analogy.|group="note"|follow="South Tipp verbs"}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Conjugation of ''bí'' in South Tipperary
! Stem Form
! 1st Sg.
! 2nd Sg.
! 3rd Masc. Sg.
! 3rd Fem. Sg.
! 1st Pl.
! 2nd Pl.
! 3rd Pl.
! Conjugation Category
|-
! ''thá''
| ''thá me''
| ''thá tu'' <ref group="note" name="tháir"></ref>{{#tag:ref|Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives ''thár'' as a form in ''conas tathár?''.<ref name="W82p44"/> Ó Maolchathaigh gives ''táir'' as a form in ''conas táir?''.<ref name="ÓMunp123">Ó Maolchathaigh unpublished, p. 123</ref>|group="note"|follow="tháir"}}
| ''thá sé''
| ''thá sí''
| ''tháimíd''
| ''thá sibh''
| ''thá siad''
| indicative present independent affirmative
|-
! ''nín''
| ''nín me'' <ref group="note" name="nínim"></ref>{{#tag:ref|Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives ''nínim''.<ref name="W82p44"/>|group="note"|follow="nínim"}}
| ''nín tu''
| ''nín sé''
| ''nín sí''
| ''nínimíd'' <ref group="note" name="nínmíd"></ref>{{#tag:ref|Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives ''nínmíd''.<ref name="W82p44"/>|group="note"|follow="nínmíd"}}
| ''nín sibh''
| ''nín siad''
| indicative present independent negative
|-
! ''fuil''
| ''fuil me''
| ''fuil tu''
| ''fuil sé''
| ''fuil sí''
| ''fuilimíd''
| ''fuil sibh''
| ''fuil siad''
| indicative present dependent
|-
! ''bhí''
| ''bhí me''
| ''bhí tu''
| ''bhí sé''
| ''bhí sí''
| ''bhíomar'' <ref group="note" name="-amair"></ref>{{#tag:ref|While Ó Maolchathaigh had ''-amar'' endings, Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna had ''-amair'' endings.<ref name="W82p38">Wagner 1982, p. 38</ref>|group="note"|follow="-amair"}}
| ''bhíobhair''
| ''bhíodar''
| indicative past independent
|-
! ''raibh''
| ''raibh me''
| ''raibh tu''
| ''raibh sé''
| ''raibh sí''
| ''raibheamar'' <ref group="note" name="-amair"/>
| ''raibheabhair''
| ''raibheadar''
| indicative past dependent
|-
! ''beidh''
| ''beidh me''
| ''beidh tu''
| ''beidh sé''
| ''beidh sí''
| ''beimíd''
| ''beidh sibh''
| ''beidh siad''
| indicative future
|-
! ''bíonn''
| ''bím''
| ''bíonn tu''
| ''bíonn sé''
| ''bíonn sí''
| ''bímíd''
| ''bíonn sibh''
| ''bíonn siad''
| indicative present habitual
|-
! ''bhíodh''
| ''bhínn''
| ''bhítheá''
| ''bhíodh sé''
| ''bhíodh sí''
| ''bhímíst''
| ''bhíodh sibh''
| ''bhídís''
| indicative past habitual
|-
! ''bheadh''
| ''bheinn''
| ''bheitheá''
| ''bheadh sé''
| ''bheadh sí''
| ''bheimíst''
| ''bheadh sibh''
| ''bheidís''
| conditional
|}

Note: as is typical throughout Déise Irish, the interrogatives ''an bhfuil?'' and ''cá bhfuil?'' are pronounced as ''buil?'' (dropping the ''an'' particle) and ''cail?'' (merging ''cá'' and ''bhfuil'', and shortening the vowel) respectively; otherwise, the pronunciation of ''bhfuil'' is generally as expected.

== Prepositions ==

=== Prepositional Pronouns ===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Prepositions and their prepositional pronouns
! Preposition
! 1st Sg.
! 2nd Sg.
! 3rd Masc. Sg.
! 3rd Fem. Sg.
! 1st Pl.
! 2nd Pl.
! 3rd Pl.
|-
! ''aige'' <ref group="note">The form ''age'' is actually the same as the 3rd person masculine singular form ''aige'', but spelled this way (by some people) to distinguish between the two in writing. Though often others will just use the more standard form ''ag'' in writing.</ref> <ref group="note">''aige'' can reduce to ''aig’'', ''‘ge'' or ''‘g’''; ''aige'' is used when the preceding word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a consonant; ''aig’'' is used when the preceding word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a vowel; ''‘ge'' is used when the preceding word ends with a vowel (or in initial position) and the following word begins with a consonant; ''‘g’'' is used when the preceding word ends with a vowel (or in initial position) and the following word begins with a vowel. ''aige'' and its pronominal forms have the stress on the second syllable and all are prone to dropping the initial vowel in initial position or when preceded by a word ending in a vowel, e.g. ''‘gam'', ''‘gat'', ''‘ge'', ''‘ci'', ''‘gainn'', ''‘gaibh'' and ''‘cu''.</ref>
| ''agam''
| ''agat''
| ''aige''
| ''aici''
| ''againn''
| ''agaibh''
| ''acu''
|-
! ''ar'' <ref group="note">The form ''ar'' is actually the same as the 3rd person masculine singular form ''air'', but spelled this way to distinguish between the two in writing.</ref> <ref group="note">Unlike ''aige'', the stress can vary between the first or second syllable among the pronominal forms, often dropping the initial vowel, as in the 1st person singular ''rom'', and when the initial vowel in the monosyllabic forms can be elided by a preceding vowel, as in the 2nd person singular ''‘rt''.</ref>
| ''orm'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''rom''.</ref>
| ''ort''
| ''air''
| ''uirthi'' or ''uirthí''
| ''eirinn'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘rinn''.</ref> or ''orthainn'' or ''orainn''
| ''oraibh'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘ribh''.</ref>
| ''ora'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘ra''.</ref> or ''ortha''
|-
! ''as''
| ''asam''
| ''asat''
| ''as''
| ''aiste''
| ''asainn''
| ''asaibh''
| ''asta''
|-
! ''chún''
| ''chúm''
| ''chút''
| ''chuige''
| ''chúithe''
| ''chúinn''
| ''chúibh''
| ''chútha''
|-
! ''de'' or ''dhe'' <ref group="note" name="de and do">Other than the pronominal forms (except for the 2nd person plural), ''de'' and ''do'' are indistinguishable. ''‘ge'', the reduced form of ''aige'', is sometimes used by some speakers due to analogous delenition of ''dhe'' or ''dho''.</ref>
| ''díom'' or ''dhíom''
| ''díot'' or ''dhíot''
| ''de'' or ''dhe''
| ''di'' or ''dhi''
| ''dínn'' or ''dhínn''
| ''díbh'' or ''dhíbh''
| ''díobh'' or ''dhíobh''
|-
! ''do'' or ''dho'' <ref group="note" name="de and do"/>
| ''dom'' or ''dhom'' <ref group="note">Emphatic form ''dúmhsa'' or ''dhúmhsa''.</ref>
| ''doit'' or ''dhoit''
| ''do'' or ''dho'' <ref group="note">Emphatic form ''dósan'' or ''dhósan''.</ref>
| ''di'' or ''dhi'' <ref group="note">Emphatic form ''dísin'' or ''dhísin''.</ref>
| ''dúinn'' or ''dhúinn''
| ''díbh'' or ''dhíbh''
| ''dóibh'' or ''dhóibh''
|-
! ''fé''
| ''fúm''
| ''fút''
| ''fé'' or ''féig'' or ''féighe''
| ''fúithi''
| ''fúinn'' <ref group="note" name="fé pronoun"></ref>
| ''fúibh'' <ref group="note" name="fé pronoun"/>
| ''fútha''
|-
! ''i'' <ref group="note">In the pronominal forms, the initial syllable is often unstressed and can by elided by preceding vowels..</ref>
| ''ionam'' <ref group="note">Often reduced to ''‘num''. The general emphatic form is ''numsa''.</ref>
| ''ionat'' <ref group="note">The general emphatic form is ''nutsa''.</ref>
| ''ann'' <ref group="note">The general emphatic form is ''on''.</ref>
| ''inti''
| ''ionainn'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘nainn''.</ref>
| ''ionaibh'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘naibh''.</ref>
| ''iontu'' or ''annta''
|-
! ''idir'' <ref group="note">Often reduced to'' ‘dir''.</ref> <ref group="note">''idir'' has no conjugated forms for the singular persons.</ref>
| -
| -
| -
| -
| ''eadarainn''
| ''eadaraibh''
| ''eatarra''
|-
! ''le'' or ''lé''
| ''liom''
| ''leat''
| ''leis''
| ''léithe'' or ''léi''
| ''linn''
| ''libh''
| ''leotha'' or ''leo''
|-
! ''ó''
| ''bhuam'' or ''bhuaim'' or ''uam'' or ''uaim''
| ''bhuait'' or ''uait''
| ''bhuaidh'' or ''uaidh''
| ''bhuaithe'' or ''uaithe''
| ''bhuainn'' or ''uainn''
| ''bhuaibh'' or ''uaibh''
| ''bhuatha'' or ''uatha''
|-
! ''roimh'' (''roi'') or ''roimhigh'' (''roig'') or ''roimhe''
| ''romham'' (''rúm'')
| ''romhat'' (''rút'')
| ''roimhigh'' (''roig'') or ''roimhe''
| ''rúimpe'' or ''roimpe''
| ''romhainn'' (''rúinn'')
| ''romhaibh'' (''rúibh'')
| ''rúmpa'' or ''rompa''
|-
! ''thar'' or ''thear''
| ''thorm'' or ''thearm''
| ''thorat'' or ''thearat''
| ''theiris'' or ''thairis'' or ''theairis'' or ''thiris''
| ''thóirste'' or ''thóiste''
| ''thorainn'' or ''thearainn'' or ''theirinn'' or ''thirinn''
| ''thoraibh'' or ''thearaibh''
| ''thórsta'' or ''thósta''
|-
! ''trí''
| ''tríom''
| ''tríot''
| ''tríd''
| ''tríthe''
| ''trínn''
| ''tríbh''
| ''tríotha''
|-
! ''um'' <ref group="note">The quality of the initial vowel in the prepositional pronouns depends on the quality of a preceding consonant.</ref>
| ''iomam'' or ''umam''
| ''iomat'' or ''umat''
| ''imigh'' or ''uimigh''
| ''ímpe'' or ''oimpe''
| ''iomainn'' or ''umainn''
| ''iomaibh'' or ''umaibh''
| ''iompa'' or ''umpa''
|}

{{#tag:ref|Sheehan gives nothing for the 1st and 2nd person plural pronominal forms of ''fé''.<ref name="S44p24">Sheehan 1944, p. 24</ref>|group="note"|follow="fé pronoun"}}

== Initial Mutations ==

=== Initial Mutations of Nouns ===

==== Following Simple Prepositions <ref group="note">Simple prepositions can take either the nominative or dative form of the following noun, the latter being more traditional in Munster grammar.</ref> ====

===== Without the Article =====

====== Lenition ======

The following simple prepositions cause lenition: <ref group="note">''f'' generally avoids being lenited.</ref>

* ''ar''
* ''de''
* ''do''
* ''fé''
* ''idir''
* ''mar''
* ''ó''
* ''thear'' <ref group="note">''thear'' does not cause lenition when used to denote the physical passing of an object or place.</ref>
* ''trí''
* ''um''

====== Eclipsis ======

The following simple prepositions cause eclipsis:

* ''in'' <ref group="note">Eclipsis of nouns beginning with ''b'' have both the ''m'' and the ''b'' pronounced, e.g. ''i mBéarla''.</ref>

====== ''h''-Prothesis ======

The following simple prepositions cause ''h''-prothesis:

* ''le'' <ref group="note" name="le mutation"></ref>{{#tag:ref|''le'' causes no mutation in South Tipperary.<ref name="ÓM74p228">Ó Maolchathaigh 1974, p. 228</ref>|group="note"|follow="le mutation"}}
* ''go''

====== No Mutation ======

The following simple prepositions cause no mutation:

* ''aige''
* ''as'' <ref group="note" name="as mutation"></ref>{{#tag:ref|''as'' causes lenition in South Tipperary.<ref name="ÓM74p228"/>|group="note"|follow="as mutation"}}
* ''go dtí'', ''dtí''
* ''roimh'', ''roimhig''

===== With the Singular Article <ref>Breatnach 1961, pp. 217-222.</ref> =====

Non-verbal nouns are affected by one of two forms of mutation, lenition or eclipsis, or no mutation, following a combination of a simple preposition and the singular article.

====== Simple Preposition and Article Combinations ======

The following simple prepositions with singular articles are found in Déise Irish:

* ''aige ‘n'',
* ''ar an'',
* ''as an'',
* ''de ‘n'',
* ''do ‘n'',
* ''fé ‘n'',
* ''ó ‘n'',
* ''roimh ‘n'',
* ''(go) dtí ‘n'',
* ''leis an'',
* ''thear an'',
*''tríd an'',
* and ''ins an''.

====== Lenition ======

Under this context, the following consonants are affected by lenition:

* ''b'' to ''bh'',
* ''p'' to ''ph'',
* ''g'' to ''gh'',
* ''c'' to ''ch'',
* and ''s'' to ''ts''. <ref group="note" name="feminine nouns">Only affects feminine nouns with initial ''s''; masculine nouns are not mutated.</ref>

====== Eclipsis ======

Under this context, the following consonants are affected by eclipsis:

* ''b'' to ''mb'',
* ''p'' to ''bp'',
* ''g'' to ''ng'',
* ''c'' to ''gc'',
* and ''f'' to ''bhf''.

====== No Mutation ======

Under this context, the following consonants which can appear as unmutated initials in nouns<ref group="note">Not considering cases where word borrowings that use other letters, but these are generally not mutated anyway.</ref> are not affected by mutation:

* ''d'',
* ''t'',
* ''m'',
* ''n'',
* ''l'',
* ''r''
* or ''h''.

====== Contributing Factors ======

The following factors contribute towards determining the type of mutation used on the initial of the noun:

* The form of the preposition when used with the article,<ref group="note">For example, the preposition ''le'' becomes ''leis'' when combined with the article.</ref> whether it ends in a vowel or a consonant.
* The initial consonant of the noun:
** ''b'', ''g'' or ''f''
** ''p'' or ''c''
** ''s'' <ref group="note" name="feminine nouns"/>

====== General Rules ======

# ''b'', ''g'' and ''f'' undergo eclipsis following all preposition and article combinations.
# ''s'', only in the case of feminine nouns<ref group="note" name="feminine nouns"/>, undergoes lenition following all preposition and article combinations. It does not mutate if the noun is masculine.
# ''p'' and ''c'' undergo lenition following ''ins a’'' (or ''sa'').
# ''p'' and ''c'' undergo eclipsis following all other preposition and article combinations where the prepositional form ends in a consonant.
# ''p'' and ''c'' undergo lenition following all preposition and article combinations where the prepositional form ends in a vowel.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Initial mutations caused by preposition + singular article
! rowspan="2" colspan="1" |
! colspan="6" | Noun Initial
|-
! ''b''
! ''g''
! ''f''
! ''p''
! ''c''
! ''s'' <ref group="note" name="feminine nouns"/>
|-
! ''aige ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''de ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''do ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''fé ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''ó ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''roimh ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''dtí ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''ar a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''as a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''leis a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''thear a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''tríd a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''ins a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|}

====== Deviations to the Rules ======

* Contrary to rule #1, a speaker in South Tipperary had a tendency to lenite initial ''b'' and ''g'', but his usage of lenition in this context was inconsistent and he regularly used eclipsis instead.
* Contrary to rule #3, ''ins an'' (or ''sa'') had a greater tendency to cause eclipses on initial ''p'' and ''c'' in South Tipperary, but lenition among the speakers from this area was also noted. Eclipsis has also been noted among speakers from Waterford, but this isn’t typical and might only occur with certain words and as an alternating pronunciation.
* Contrary to rule #5, ''p'' has a tendency to not undergo lenition, but this can be a case of alternating pronunciations as recorded among native Déise Irish speakers.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Recordings =

== RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta ==

=== Adhmhaidin ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21543527/ 22 Aibreán 2019 - ''Nioclás Ó Gríofáin, Cumann Staire na nDéise''] Imní ar Chumann Staire Ghaeltacht na nDéise, go ndéanfar dearmad ar Mhicheál Breathnach an t-aon duine amháin as an Rinn, i bPort Láirge, a maraíodh i gCogadh na Saoirse, mura gcuirtear leanaí na háite ar an eolas faoi.

=== An Saol Ó Dheas ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21441897/ 02 Deireadh Fómhair 2018 - ''Micheál de Paor, feirmeoir ón Seanaphobal sna Déise''] Tá a shaol caite aige Micheál ag saothrú na talún sa Loiscreán sa tSeanaphobal. Thug sé a a óige ag imirt chaide lena pharóiste ach deir sé go mbíodh peileadóirí na Rinne ró mhaith dhóibh i gconaí.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21586945/ 16 Iúil 2019 - ''Nollaig Ó Cionnfhaola, Parthalán Breathnach, Nioclás Ó Gríofáin; Am lóin sa Linn Bhuí''] Triú fear ón Rinn ag ithe dínnéir i lár a lae sa Linn Bhuí ar a suaimhneas. Caint ar a saol,a n-óige agus an sásamh atá bainte acu as go dtí seo.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21638319/ 17 Deireadh Fómhair 2019 - ''Nioclás Ó Gríofáin; Báid a briseadh ar chósta Phort Láirge''] Tá mappáil déanta ar ghrinneal na Mara ar chósta na h-Éireann ag INFOMAR. Tá eolas aige Nioclás ar bháid a chuaigh go grinneal amach ó chósta Phort Láirge.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22006172/ 16 Meán Fómhair 2021 - ''Seán Breathnach; Rinn Ua gCuanach''] Fuair Seán Breathnach ó Rinn Ua gCuanach taom croí an tseachtain seo caite. Caitheadh é bhogadh ó Ospidéal na h-Ollscoile Port Láirge go Corcaigh mar nach raibh seirbhísí croí ar fáil ann i rith an deireadh seachtaine.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22340893/ 09 Eanáir 2024 - ''Dónal Ó Murchadha; Comhairle Pobail na Rinne''] Tá Dónal Ó Murchadha ceapaithe ina Chathaoirleach ar Chomhairle Pobail na Rinne.

=== Cartlann Bhóthar na Léinsí ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21835272/ 13 Meán Fómhair 2020 - ''Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin''] Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin, Baile na nGall, Rinn Ua gCuanach, ag cur síos ar an saol ina baile dúchais nuair a bhí sí óg. Craoladh é seo den chéad uair 09/04/1981.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21846130/ 04 Deireadh Fómhair 2020 - ''Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin & Cáit ‘An Bhab’ Feiritéar''] Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin, Rinn Ua gCuanach, & Cáit ‘An Bhab’ Feiritéar, Dún Chaoin i gcomhrá le chéile i 1985.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21856363/ 25 Deireadh Fómhair 2020 - ''Séimí Ó Cionnfhaola, Rinn Ua gCuanach''] Séimí Ó Cionnfhaola ag labhairt le Dóirín Mhic Mhurchadha fé bheith ag múineadh Gaolainne agus amhráin i Londain. Craolta 03/05/1976.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21920681/ 07 Márta 21 - ''Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin, An Rinn''] Dar le Peig Bn Uí Riagáin ón Rinn, ag labhairt di i 1993, b’amhail leis an difríocht idir cailc agus cáis an difríocht idir an charghas nuair a bhí sí óg agus carghas na linne seo.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21957613/ 23 Bealtaine 2021 - ''Micheál Ó Maoldomhnaigh, An Caisleán Nua, Co. Thiobrad Árainn''] Micheál Ó Maoldomhnaigh, An Caisleán Nua, Co. Thiobrad Árainn, ó Chartlann Raidió Éireann, deireadh na 1950í.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22016440/ 10 Deireadh Fómhair 2021 - ''Clár #55: Maidhc Dháith Turraoin, Rinn Ua gCuanach''] Clár ó 1958 le rí-sheanchaí na nDéise, Maidhc Dháith Turraoin (ó Chartlann Raidió Éireann).
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22051507/ 16 Eanáir 2022 - ''Clár #68: An Rinn & An Seanphobal''] Dhá agallamh a deineadh i gceantar Ghaeltachta na nDéise i 1994: - Séimín Ó Cionnfhaola ó Bhaile na nGall - Peig Móinbhíol ón Seanaphobal.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22058361/ 30 Eanáir 2022 - ''Clár #70: Lá le Bríde''] Naomh Bríd & a Féile - Joe Daly - Caitlín Mhic Eoin - Bab Feiritéar - Peig Uí Riagáin - Nell Tom Ní Ríordáin.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22113508/ 26 Meitheamh 2022 - ''Clár #91: Muintir na Rinne 1980''] Cois mara thoir sa Rinn i 1980 le: Tomás Ó Ceallaigh, Scipéara an bháid 'An Tyrone'; Déaglán Dúrta as an Seanaphobal; Liam Breathnach as Cnocán an Phaoraigh; An tAth. Tadhg Furlong, Sagart cúnta na Rinne; Úna Bn. Breathnach (Úna Parks).
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22122453/ 17 Iúil 2022 - ''Clár #94: Pátrún na hAirde Móire & Páirc Uí Fhearchair''] Nioclás Breathnach ag cur síos ar Naomh Déaglán, Pátrún na hAirde Móire agus bruíonta baitíní, i 1998. Nioclás Mac Craith ag cur síos ar stair & seanchas Pháirc Uí Fhearchair i nDún Garbhán, 1995.

=== Cormac ag a Cúig ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20708215/ 07 Eanáir 2015 - ''Odí Ní Chéilleachair'']

=== Ríleanna agus Téipeanna ===

* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-01-feabhra-2009 01 Feabhra 2009] Ian Lee le píosaí cainte ón Rinn - Risteard Turraoin ó 1972 le Pádraig Tyers; Radio Pobail na Rinne 1978 - Nioclás MacCraith, Máire Nic Craith, Séamus MacCraith, Séamus Ó Faoláin (Séamusiín an Chnoic) Stás Ní Chrota, Neans Uí Bhraonáin páirteach ann. Cuid den eolas fá ainmneacha faighte ó dhaoine sa Rinn.
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-080209 08 Feabhra 2009] Seán Tóibín, Micheál Gaeltacht na Rinne ó Chartlann Fuaime RTÉ - Deaglán Ó Muiríosa, Séamus Ó Faoláin ag caint le Pádraig Tyers sna 70adaí; Na Prátaí Dubha á aithris ag Peig Uí Riagáin; Radio Pobail na Rinne ó 1978; Séamus MacCraith agus Liam Coistín agus Máire Nic Craith páirteach ann. Láithriú/Leiriú Ian Lee
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-15-feabhra-2009 15 Feabhra 2009] Seán Tóibín, Micheál Breathnach ón Rinn ag caint le Pádraig Tyers sa bhliain 1974. Laithriú/Leiriú: Ian Lee
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-220209 22 Feabhra 2009] Ábhar ón Rinn Co Phort Láirge
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-010309 01 Márta 2009] Ábhar ón Rinn Co Phort Láirge
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-080309 08 Márta 2009] Ábhar ón Rinn Co Phort Láirge
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-150309 15 Márta 2009] Seanchas agus scéalta faoi Naomh Pádraig

=== Siúlach Scéalach ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20421440/ 13 Lúnasa 2013 - ''An tAthair Ó Flaithbhín sagart paróiste na Rinne sa bhliain 1972''] An tAthair Ó Flaithbhín sagart paróiste na Rinne ag cur sios ar an Rinn sna Déise mar leath-pharóiste agus aifrinn Ghaeilge sa cheantar.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20421441/ 13 Lúnasa 2013 - ''Liam Breathnach sa Rinn 1972''] Liam Breathnach ón Rinn ag cur síos ar an tsean-saol sa cheantar nuair nach raibh Béarla ar bith á labhairt, cúrsai iascaireachta, Coláiste na Rinne.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20421442/ 13 Lúnasa 2013 - ''Micheál Ó Domhnaill agus Coláiste na Rinne 1972''] Micheál Ó Domhnaill, bainisteoir Choláiste na Rinne ag cur síos ar thionchar an choláiste ar an cheantar agus an Béarla ag teacht chun cinn.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20421443/ 13 Lúnasa 2013 -''Muiris Ó Ceallaigh sa Rinn 1972''] Muiris Ó Ceallaigh iascaire as Heilbhic ag cur síos ar chúrsaí iascaireachta sa cheantar.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20462511/ 27 Deireadh Fómhair 2013 - ''Muintir na Rinne sna Déise 1974''] Seosamh Ó Foghlú, Nioclás MacCraith, Gearóid Ó Curraoin agus Dóirín Mhic Mhurchadha ag cur síos as an saol sa Rinn le hUinseann MacGruairc sa bhliain 1974.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20660604/ 06 Deireadh Fómhair 2014 - ''Seán Tóibín ón Rinn Co Phort Láirge''] Seán Tóibín ó Bhaile na nGall, An Rinn, ag caint le Pádraig Tyers fá chúrsaí iascaireachta ag tús na 70adaí.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20742176/ 02 Márta 2015 - ''Micheál Breathnach agus Pádraig Tyers sa Rinn''] Micheál Breathnach ag caint le Pádraig Tyers ar ché Bhaile na nGall sa Rinn fá sheoltóir (shark) a thug siad i dtír sa bhliain 1972.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20767800/ 20 Aibreán 2015 - ''Cáit Feiritéar, Nioclás Tóibín, Áine Ní Ghallchóir''] Cáit Féiritéar ag inse scéalta sa bhliain 1968 ina measc údar an amhráin a cheolann Nioclás Tóibín agus Áine Ní Ghallchhóir anseo, amhrán fá bhean a thug na síogaí leo.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20767797/ 20 Aibreán 2015 - ''Micheál Ó Maoldomhnaigh cainteoir ó dhúchas ó Thobraid Árann''] Micheál Ó Maoldomhnaigh cainteoir ó dhúchas Gaeilge ón Chaisleán Nua in aice le Cluain Meala i gCo. Thiobraid Árann agus Pádraig Ó Muiríosa ar a chéad chuairt ar a cheantar dúchais i dTiobrad Árann ó Mheiriceá agus Gaeilge aige go fóill.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20767796/ 20 Aibreán 2015 - ''Micheál Turraoin ón Rinn''] Micheál Turraoin ón Rinn ag caint le Padraig Tyers sa bhliain 1961 fá spailpíneacht agus eile.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20990722/ 16 Bealtaine 2016 - ''Séamus Ó Maolchatha údar''] Séamus Ó Maolchatha údar an leabhair 'An Gleann is a raibh ann' ag caint le Proinsias Ó Conluain.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20997080/ 30 Bealtaine 2016 - ''Risteárd B Breathnach''] Risteárd B Breathnach, seaneolaí ar Ghaeilge na nDéise ag caint fán chanúint sin agus mar atá sí ag imeacht de réir a chéile.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21238761/ 24 Meán Fómhair 2017 - ''Uinseann Mac Ruairc agus Na Déise''] Tugann Uinseann Mac Ruairc a léargas féin dúinn ar litríocht agus ar cheol na nDéise. Craoladh 1972.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21277896/ 26 Samhain 2017 - ''Labhrás Ó Cadhla''] Labhrás Ó Cadha ag ceol agus ag caint fá chúpla amhrán do Chiarán Mac Mathúna sa Rinn sa bhliain 1957 ina measc 'Táiliúir a' Chroí Mhóir'; 'Sliabh Geal gCua' agus 'Caoineadh Dhiarmuid Stokes'.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21472711/ 02 Nollaig 2018 - ''An Rinn 1972''] Pádraig Tyers ag caint le muintir na Rinne sna Déise, Port Láirge, sa bhliain 1972 fá chúrsaí maireachtála agus neart eile.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21635903/ 13 Deireadh Fómhair 2019] Labhrann Alan Titley le hIan Lee fána rogha féin de mhíreanna as an tsraith seo. Frank O Connor, Peadar O Donnell, Sarah & Rita Keane, Nioclás Tóibín (agallamh amháin), Piaras Béaslaí, samplaí de Ghaeilge Dheisceart Thiobraid Árann agus Cho. Thír Eoghain, Mick O Connell agus mír as Fadhbanna Gaeilge le Tomás de Bhaldraithe sa chathaoir.

== WLR ==

=== Muintir na nDéise ===

[https://www.wlrfm.com/lifestyle/muintir-na-ndc3a9ise-a-new-all-irish-weekly-series-on-wlr-131053 Muintir na nDéise] - a series of interviews from Gaeltacht na nDéise, conducted in 2018:

* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/programme-1-pauline-ni-craith 7th June 2020 - ''Programme 1: Pauline Nic Craith''] Pauline Nic Craith, a native of An Rinn, who qualified as a nurse in the late 1940s and worked in Belfast during the troubles in the 1970s.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/programme-2-tomas-o-cellechair 14th June 2020 - ''Programme 2: Tomás Ó Céilleachar''] Tomás Ó Céilleachar was born in 1935 in Caherboshina in Corca Dhuibhne. He remembers moving to Ring in the late 1950s to take up a job teaching in Coláiste na Rinne and his years as publican of Tigh an Cheoil in the Ring village of Baile na nGall.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/program-3-siobhan-de-foirte-110620 21st June 2020 - ''Programme 3: Siobhán de Faoite''] Siobhán de Faoite, who was born in Old Parish before the end of World War 2, describes her life as a farmer’s daughter. She also speaks about her education, her married life and her membership of the Irish Countrywomen’s Association, a vital organization for women in rural Ireland in the 1970s.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/paidrig-seamus-program-4 28th June 2020 - ''Programme 4: Pádraig Seosamh Ó Mathúna''] Pádraig Seosamh Ó Mathúna, a farmer and an amateur actor, who was born in 1927, remembers his parents, going to mass in a pony and trap and later going to the mart in Dungarvan with his father.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/programme-5-caith-ni-craith 5th July 2020 - ''Programme 5: Cait Mhic Craith''] Cait Mhic Craith, a native of Clashmore in Co Waterford, remembers arriving in Ring in 1961 to take up her new job as junior house matron at Coláiste na Rinne.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/programme-6-nicolas-o-griofain 12th July 2020 - ''Programme 6: Nioclás Ó Gríofáin''] Nioclás Ó Gríofáin, a local historian and a native of Ring, was born in February, 1936. He remembers his school days, the prayers they had, the games they used to play and the way the community would gather to listen to the radio on the Sunday of a big match.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/mnd-prog7 19th July 2020 - ''Programme 7: Máiréad Uí Mhuirithe''] Mairéad Uí Mhuirithe, who grew up in the Ring Gaeltacht, also remembers her parents, her teachers, her childhood and her late husband, Patsy Murray.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/mnd-prog8 26th July 2020 - ''Programme 8: Tomás Ó Curraoin''] Tomás Ó Curraoin, who was born in 1941, became an electrician and worked for many years in Waterford city. He remembers life as a boy when he worked on the farm milking cows before and after school.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/mnd-prog9 2nd August 2020 - ''Programme 9: Nóirín Uí Chionaola''] Nóirín Uí Chionaola, another interviewee, was born in 1928. The eldest in her family, she grew up in Ballingarry in Co Limerick and remembers the thrill of the arrival of her baby sister. She also talks about her life married to Domhnall Ó Cionaola and their life together. Now in her nineties, Nóirín remembers her first visits to Baile na nGall in An Rinn in the 1950s where she heard singing in the pub there, including singers such as her husband and the late Nioclás Tóibín.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/mnd-prog10 9th August 2020 - ''Programme 10: Mícheál Seosamh de Paor''] Mícheál Seosamh de Paor, who passed away on 8 March 2020, remembers his mother and father and his youth growing up in Old Parish as well as his life as a father and a husband. And he talks about the heartbreak he felt on the tragic and untimely death of his late wife Mairéad.

== Song ==

* [https://open.spotify.com/album/5iXz2Nh9UmtOnL9TmTHcDe?si=4R5uZ6icTOm7kvBVddTxwg Labhras Ó Cadhla - ''Amhráin ó Shliabh gCua'']
* [https://open.spotify.com/album/6mO1TsSUWnJJlzfSmxTG6Q?si=LRzraBu5SUu9laYK0t95HA Nioclás Tóibín - ''Amhráin Aneas'']

= Bibliography =

* Breatnach, R. B. (1961). "Initial Mutation of Substantives after Preposition + Singular Article in Déise Irish". ''Éigse: A Journal of Irish Studies''. '''IX''' (IV). The National University of Ireland.
* Breatnach, R. B. (1984). ''Seana-Chaint na nDéise II: Studies in the Vocabulary and Idiom of Déise Irish based mainly on material collected by Archbishop Michael Sheehan (1870-1945)''. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* de Bhial, T. (1985). ''A Cabhsa: 2,000 abairtí samplacha Gaeilge''. An Gúm.
* Ó Cionnfhaolaidh, M. (1956). ''Beatha Mhichíl Turraoin: Maille le Sceulta agus Seanachas''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Cuirrín, S. (1936). "Beirt Dhéiseach". ''Beirt Dhéiseach mar atá: Sceul nua-cheaptha, agus Trí Sceulta arna dtiontódh ó theangthacha eile''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Cuív, B. (1993). ''Irish Dialects and Irish-Speaking Districts: Three Lectures'' (1993 reprint). School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Ó Fiannusa, P. (2008). ''Ghaibh a Leithéid an tSlí Tráth'' (second edition). Cló Chois Móire.
* Ó hAirt, D. (1988). ''Díolaim Dhéiseach''. Acadamh Ríoga na hÉireann, Baile Athá Cliath.
* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (unpublished). ''An Gleann is a Raibh Ann'' (one of two original manuscripts).
* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1938). "Eachtra Shéimín Paor". ''As na Ceithre hÁirdibh: cnuasach gearr-scéal''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1953). ''Dualgas Pheadair Bhig''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1974). ''An Gleann agus a Raibh Ann'' (1974 edition). An Clóchomhar Tta. Dundalgen Press.
* O'Rahilly, T. F. (1988). ''Irish Dialects Past and Present: with Chapters on Scottish and Manx'' (1988 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Sheehan, Most Rev. M. (1944). ''Sean-Chaint na nDéise: the Idiom of Living Language'' (second edition). The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Tóibín, N. (1979). ''Duanaire Déiseach'' (second edition). Sáirséal agus Dill, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Wagner, H. (1981). ''Linguistic Atlas and Survey of Irish Dialects: Vol. I. Introduction, 300 maps'' (1981 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Wagner, H. (1982). ''Linguistic Atlas and Survey of Irish Dialects: Vol. II. The Dialects of Munster'' (1982 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Ward, A. (1974). ''The Grammatical Structure of Munster Irish''. University of Dublin.

= References =

<references />

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Déise Irish]]

Irish/Déise Irish

2024-01-09T20:10:12Z

Erisceres: /* RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta */

The main page for describing the Déise dialect of Irish

= Morphosyntax =

== Verbs ==

=== Analytic and Synthetic Forms ===

==== South Tipperary ====

In the variety of Déise Irish that was spoken in South Tipperary, the following conjugations of the verb ''bí'' along with the most typical analytic and synthetic forms are given: <ref group="note" name="South Tipp verbs"></ref>{{#tag:ref|Ó Maolchathaigh specifically details the paradigms for the forms ''bhí'', ''thá'', ''beidh'', ''bheadh'' and ''bhíodh'' (alongside a paradigm for ''bhuail'' which functions exactly the same as the paradigm for ''bhí'').<ref name="ÓMunp320">Ó Maolchathaigh unpublished, p. 320</ref> The remaining paradigms are retrieved elsewhere<ref name="W82p44">Wagner 1982, p. 44</ref> or presumed by analogy.|group="note"|follow="South Tipp verbs"}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Conjugation of ''bí'' in South Tipperary
! Stem Form
! 1st Sg.
! 2nd Sg.
! 3rd Masc. Sg.
! 3rd Fem. Sg.
! 1st Pl.
! 2nd Pl.
! 3rd Pl.
! Conjugation Category
|-
! ''thá''
| ''thá me''
| ''thá tu'' <ref group="note" name="tháir"></ref>{{#tag:ref|Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives ''thár'' as a form in ''conas tathár?''.<ref name="W82p44"/> Ó Maolchathaigh gives ''táir'' as a form in ''conas táir?''.<ref name="ÓMunp123">Ó Maolchathaigh unpublished, p. 123</ref>|group="note"|follow="tháir"}}
| ''thá sé''
| ''thá sí''
| ''tháimíd''
| ''thá sibh''
| ''thá siad''
| indicative present independent affirmative
|-
! ''nín''
| ''nín me'' <ref group="note" name="nínim"></ref>{{#tag:ref|Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives ''nínim''.<ref name="W82p44"/>|group="note"|follow="nínim"}}
| ''nín tu''
| ''nín sé''
| ''nín sí''
| ''nínimíd'' <ref group="note" name="nínmíd"></ref>{{#tag:ref|Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives ''nínmíd''.<ref name="W82p44"/>|group="note"|follow="nínmíd"}}
| ''nín sibh''
| ''nín siad''
| indicative present independent negative
|-
! ''fuil''
| ''fuil me''
| ''fuil tu''
| ''fuil sé''
| ''fuil sí''
| ''fuilimíd''
| ''fuil sibh''
| ''fuil siad''
| indicative present dependent
|-
! ''bhí''
| ''bhí me''
| ''bhí tu''
| ''bhí sé''
| ''bhí sí''
| ''bhíomar'' <ref group="note" name="-amair"></ref>{{#tag:ref|While Ó Maolchathaigh had ''-amar'' endings, Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna had ''-amair'' endings.<ref name="W82p38">Wagner 1982, p. 38</ref>|group="note"|follow="-amair"}}
| ''bhíobhair''
| ''bhíodar''
| indicative past independent
|-
! ''raibh''
| ''raibh me''
| ''raibh tu''
| ''raibh sé''
| ''raibh sí''
| ''raibheamar'' <ref group="note" name="-amair"/>
| ''raibheabhair''
| ''raibheadar''
| indicative past dependent
|-
! ''beidh''
| ''beidh me''
| ''beidh tu''
| ''beidh sé''
| ''beidh sí''
| ''beimíd''
| ''beidh sibh''
| ''beidh siad''
| indicative future
|-
! ''bíonn''
| ''bím''
| ''bíonn tu''
| ''bíonn sé''
| ''bíonn sí''
| ''bímíd''
| ''bíonn sibh''
| ''bíonn siad''
| indicative present habitual
|-
! ''bhíodh''
| ''bhínn''
| ''bhítheá''
| ''bhíodh sé''
| ''bhíodh sí''
| ''bhímíst''
| ''bhíodh sibh''
| ''bhídís''
| indicative past habitual
|-
! ''bheadh''
| ''bheinn''
| ''bheitheá''
| ''bheadh sé''
| ''bheadh sí''
| ''bheimíst''
| ''bheadh sibh''
| ''bheidís''
| conditional
|}

Note: as is typical throughout Déise Irish, the interrogatives ''an bhfuil?'' and ''cá bhfuil?'' are pronounced as ''buil?'' (dropping the ''an'' particle) and ''cail?'' (merging ''cá'' and ''bhfuil'', and shortening the vowel) respectively; otherwise, the pronunciation of ''bhfuil'' is generally as expected.

== Prepositions ==

=== Prepositional Pronouns ===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Prepositions and their prepositional pronouns
! Preposition
! 1st Sg.
! 2nd Sg.
! 3rd Masc. Sg.
! 3rd Fem. Sg.
! 1st Pl.
! 2nd Pl.
! 3rd Pl.
|-
! ''aige'' <ref group="note">The form ''age'' is actually the same as the 3rd person masculine singular form ''aige'', but spelled this way (by some people) to distinguish between the two in writing. Though often others will just use the more standard form ''ag'' in writing.</ref> <ref group="note">''aige'' can reduce to ''aig’'', ''‘ge'' or ''‘g’''; ''aige'' is used when the preceding word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a consonant; ''aig’'' is used when the preceding word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a vowel; ''‘ge'' is used when the preceding word ends with a vowel (or in initial position) and the following word begins with a consonant; ''‘g’'' is used when the preceding word ends with a vowel (or in initial position) and the following word begins with a vowel. ''aige'' and its pronominal forms have the stress on the second syllable and all are prone to dropping the initial vowel in initial position or when preceded by a word ending in a vowel, e.g. ''‘gam'', ''‘gat'', ''‘ge'', ''‘ci'', ''‘gainn'', ''‘gaibh'' and ''‘cu''.</ref>
| ''agam''
| ''agat''
| ''aige''
| ''aici''
| ''againn''
| ''agaibh''
| ''acu''
|-
! ''ar'' <ref group="note">The form ''ar'' is actually the same as the 3rd person masculine singular form ''air'', but spelled this way to distinguish between the two in writing.</ref> <ref group="note">Unlike ''aige'', the stress can vary between the first or second syllable among the pronominal forms, often dropping the initial vowel, as in the 1st person singular ''rom'', and when the initial vowel in the monosyllabic forms can be elided by a preceding vowel, as in the 2nd person singular ''‘rt''.</ref>
| ''orm'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''rom''.</ref>
| ''ort''
| ''air''
| ''uirthi'' or ''uirthí''
| ''eirinn'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘rinn''.</ref> or ''orthainn'' or ''orainn''
| ''oraibh'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘ribh''.</ref>
| ''ora'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘ra''.</ref> or ''ortha''
|-
! ''as''
| ''asam''
| ''asat''
| ''as''
| ''aiste''
| ''asainn''
| ''asaibh''
| ''asta''
|-
! ''chún''
| ''chúm''
| ''chút''
| ''chuige''
| ''chúithe''
| ''chúinn''
| ''chúibh''
| ''chútha''
|-
! ''de'' or ''dhe'' <ref group="note" name="de and do">Other than the pronominal forms (except for the 2nd person plural), ''de'' and ''do'' are indistinguishable. ''‘ge'', the reduced form of ''aige'', is sometimes used by some speakers due to analogous delenition of ''dhe'' or ''dho''.</ref>
| ''díom'' or ''dhíom''
| ''díot'' or ''dhíot''
| ''de'' or ''dhe''
| ''di'' or ''dhi''
| ''dínn'' or ''dhínn''
| ''díbh'' or ''dhíbh''
| ''díobh'' or ''dhíobh''
|-
! ''do'' or ''dho'' <ref group="note" name="de and do"/>
| ''dom'' or ''dhom'' <ref group="note">Emphatic form ''dúmhsa'' or ''dhúmhsa''.</ref>
| ''doit'' or ''dhoit''
| ''do'' or ''dho'' <ref group="note">Emphatic form ''dósan'' or ''dhósan''.</ref>
| ''di'' or ''dhi'' <ref group="note">Emphatic form ''dísin'' or ''dhísin''.</ref>
| ''dúinn'' or ''dhúinn''
| ''díbh'' or ''dhíbh''
| ''dóibh'' or ''dhóibh''
|-
! ''fé''
| ''fúm''
| ''fút''
| ''fé'' or ''féig'' or ''féighe''
| ''fúithi''
| ''fúinn'' <ref group="note" name="fé pronoun"></ref>
| ''fúibh'' <ref group="note" name="fé pronoun"/>
| ''fútha''
|-
! ''i'' <ref group="note">In the pronominal forms, the initial syllable is often unstressed and can by elided by preceding vowels..</ref>
| ''ionam'' <ref group="note">Often reduced to ''‘num''. The general emphatic form is ''numsa''.</ref>
| ''ionat'' <ref group="note">The general emphatic form is ''nutsa''.</ref>
| ''ann'' <ref group="note">The general emphatic form is ''on''.</ref>
| ''inti''
| ''ionainn'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘nainn''.</ref>
| ''ionaibh'' <ref group="note">Sometimes reduced to ''‘naibh''.</ref>
| ''iontu'' or ''annta''
|-
! ''idir'' <ref group="note">Often reduced to'' ‘dir''.</ref> <ref group="note">''idir'' has no conjugated forms for the singular persons.</ref>
| -
| -
| -
| -
| ''eadarainn''
| ''eadaraibh''
| ''eatarra''
|-
! ''le'' or ''lé''
| ''liom''
| ''leat''
| ''leis''
| ''léithe'' or ''léi''
| ''linn''
| ''libh''
| ''leotha'' or ''leo''
|-
! ''ó''
| ''bhuam'' or ''bhuaim'' or ''uam'' or ''uaim''
| ''bhuait'' or ''uait''
| ''bhuaidh'' or ''uaidh''
| ''bhuaithe'' or ''uaithe''
| ''bhuainn'' or ''uainn''
| ''bhuaibh'' or ''uaibh''
| ''bhuatha'' or ''uatha''
|-
! ''roimh'' (''roi'') or ''roimhigh'' (''roig'') or ''roimhe''
| ''romham'' (''rúm'')
| ''romhat'' (''rút'')
| ''roimhigh'' (''roig'') or ''roimhe''
| ''rúimpe'' or ''roimpe''
| ''romhainn'' (''rúinn'')
| ''romhaibh'' (''rúibh'')
| ''rúmpa'' or ''rompa''
|-
! ''thar'' or ''thear''
| ''thorm'' or ''thearm''
| ''thorat'' or ''thearat''
| ''theiris'' or ''thairis'' or ''theairis'' or ''thiris''
| ''thóirste'' or ''thóiste''
| ''thorainn'' or ''thearainn'' or ''theirinn'' or ''thirinn''
| ''thoraibh'' or ''thearaibh''
| ''thórsta'' or ''thósta''
|-
! ''trí''
| ''tríom''
| ''tríot''
| ''tríd''
| ''tríthe''
| ''trínn''
| ''tríbh''
| ''tríotha''
|-
! ''um'' <ref group="note">The quality of the initial vowel in the prepositional pronouns depends on the quality of a preceding consonant.</ref>
| ''iomam'' or ''umam''
| ''iomat'' or ''umat''
| ''imigh'' or ''uimigh''
| ''ímpe'' or ''oimpe''
| ''iomainn'' or ''umainn''
| ''iomaibh'' or ''umaibh''
| ''iompa'' or ''umpa''
|}

{{#tag:ref|Sheehan gives nothing for the 1st and 2nd person plural pronominal forms of ''fé''.<ref name="S44p24">Sheehan 1944, p. 24</ref>|group="note"|follow="fé pronoun"}}

== Initial Mutations ==

=== Initial Mutations of Nouns ===

==== Following Simple Prepositions <ref group="note">Simple prepositions can take either the nominative or dative form of the following noun, the latter being more traditional in Munster grammar.</ref> ====

===== Without the Article =====

====== Lenition ======

The following simple prepositions cause lenition: <ref group="note">''f'' generally avoids being lenited.</ref>

* ''ar''
* ''de''
* ''do''
* ''fé''
* ''idir''
* ''mar''
* ''ó''
* ''thear'' <ref group="note">''thear'' does not cause lenition when used to denote the physical passing of an object or place.</ref>
* ''trí''
* ''um''

====== Eclipsis ======

The following simple prepositions cause eclipsis:

* ''in'' <ref group="note">Eclipsis of nouns beginning with ''b'' have both the ''m'' and the ''b'' pronounced, e.g. ''i mBéarla''.</ref>

====== ''h''-Prothesis ======

The following simple prepositions cause ''h''-prothesis:

* ''le'' <ref group="note" name="le mutation"></ref>{{#tag:ref|''le'' causes no mutation in South Tipperary.<ref name="ÓM74p228">Ó Maolchathaigh 1974, p. 228</ref>|group="note"|follow="le mutation"}}
* ''go''

====== No Mutation ======

The following simple prepositions cause no mutation:

* ''aige''
* ''as'' <ref group="note" name="as mutation"></ref>{{#tag:ref|''as'' causes lenition in South Tipperary.<ref name="ÓM74p228"/>|group="note"|follow="as mutation"}}
* ''go dtí'', ''dtí''
* ''roimh'', ''roimhig''

===== With the Singular Article <ref>Breatnach 1961, pp. 217-222.</ref> =====

Non-verbal nouns are affected by one of two forms of mutation, lenition or eclipsis, or no mutation, following a combination of a simple preposition and the singular article.

====== Simple Preposition and Article Combinations ======

The following simple prepositions with singular articles are found in Déise Irish:

* ''aige ‘n'',
* ''ar an'',
* ''as an'',
* ''de ‘n'',
* ''do ‘n'',
* ''fé ‘n'',
* ''ó ‘n'',
* ''roimh ‘n'',
* ''(go) dtí ‘n'',
* ''leis an'',
* ''thear an'',
*''tríd an'',
* and ''ins an''.

====== Lenition ======

Under this context, the following consonants are affected by lenition:

* ''b'' to ''bh'',
* ''p'' to ''ph'',
* ''g'' to ''gh'',
* ''c'' to ''ch'',
* and ''s'' to ''ts''. <ref group="note" name="feminine nouns">Only affects feminine nouns with initial ''s''; masculine nouns are not mutated.</ref>

====== Eclipsis ======

Under this context, the following consonants are affected by eclipsis:

* ''b'' to ''mb'',
* ''p'' to ''bp'',
* ''g'' to ''ng'',
* ''c'' to ''gc'',
* and ''f'' to ''bhf''.

====== No Mutation ======

Under this context, the following consonants which can appear as unmutated initials in nouns<ref group="note">Not considering cases where word borrowings that use other letters, but these are generally not mutated anyway.</ref> are not affected by mutation:

* ''d'',
* ''t'',
* ''m'',
* ''n'',
* ''l'',
* ''r''
* or ''h''.

====== Contributing Factors ======

The following factors contribute towards determining the type of mutation used on the initial of the noun:

* The form of the preposition when used with the article,<ref group="note">For example, the preposition ''le'' becomes ''leis'' when combined with the article.</ref> whether it ends in a vowel or a consonant.
* The initial consonant of the noun:
** ''b'', ''g'' or ''f''
** ''p'' or ''c''
** ''s'' <ref group="note" name="feminine nouns"/>

====== General Rules ======

# ''b'', ''g'' and ''f'' undergo eclipsis following all preposition and article combinations.
# ''s'', only in the case of feminine nouns<ref group="note" name="feminine nouns"/>, undergoes lenition following all preposition and article combinations. It does not mutate if the noun is masculine.
# ''p'' and ''c'' undergo lenition following ''ins a’'' (or ''sa'').
# ''p'' and ''c'' undergo eclipsis following all other preposition and article combinations where the prepositional form ends in a consonant.
# ''p'' and ''c'' undergo lenition following all preposition and article combinations where the prepositional form ends in a vowel.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Initial mutations caused by preposition + singular article
! rowspan="2" colspan="1" |
! colspan="6" | Noun Initial
|-
! ''b''
! ''g''
! ''f''
! ''p''
! ''c''
! ''s'' <ref group="note" name="feminine nouns"/>
|-
! ''aige ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''de ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''do ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''fé ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''ó ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''roimh ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''dtí ‘n''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''ar a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''as a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''leis a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''thear a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''tríd a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|-
! ''ins a’''
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|red|E}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
| {{color|green|L}}
|}

====== Deviations to the Rules ======

* Contrary to rule #1, a speaker in South Tipperary had a tendency to lenite initial ''b'' and ''g'', but his usage of lenition in this context was inconsistent and he regularly used eclipsis instead.
* Contrary to rule #3, ''ins an'' (or ''sa'') had a greater tendency to cause eclipses on initial ''p'' and ''c'' in South Tipperary, but lenition among the speakers from this area was also noted. Eclipsis has also been noted among speakers from Waterford, but this isn’t typical and might only occur with certain words and as an alternating pronunciation.
* Contrary to rule #5, ''p'' has a tendency to not undergo lenition, but this can be a case of alternating pronunciations as recorded among native Déise Irish speakers.

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Recordings =

== RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta ==

=== Adhmhaidin ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21543527/ 22 Aibreán 2019 - ''Nioclás Ó Gríofáin, Cumann Staire na nDéise''] Imní ar Chumann Staire Ghaeltacht na nDéise, go ndéanfar dearmad ar Mhicheál Breathnach an t-aon duine amháin as an Rinn, i bPort Láirge, a maraíodh i gCogadh na Saoirse, mura gcuirtear leanaí na háite ar an eolas faoi.

=== An Saol Ó Dheas ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21441897/ 02 Deireadh Fómhair 2018 - ''Micheál de Paor, feirmeoir ón Seanaphobal sna Déise''] Tá a shaol caite aige Micheál ag saothrú na talún sa Loiscreán sa tSeanaphobal. Thug sé a a óige ag imirt chaide lena pharóiste ach deir sé go mbíodh peileadóirí na Rinne ró mhaith dhóibh i gconaí.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21586945/ 16 Iúil 2019 - ''Nollaig Ó Cionnfhaola, Parthalán Breathnach, Nioclás Ó Gríofáin; Am lóin sa Linn Bhuí''] Triú fear ón Rinn ag ithe dínnéir i lár a lae sa Linn Bhuí ar a suaimhneas. Caint ar a saol,a n-óige agus an sásamh atá bainte acu as go dtí seo.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21638319/ 17 Deireadh Fómhair 2019 - ''Nioclás Ó Gríofáin; Báid a briseadh ar chósta Phort Láirge''] Tá mappáil déanta ar ghrinneal na Mara ar chósta na h-Éireann ag INFOMAR. Tá eolas aige Nioclás ar bháid a chuaigh go grinneal amach ó chósta Phort Láirge.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22006172/ 16 Meán Fómhair 2021 - ''Seán Breathnach; Rinn Ua gCuanach''] Fuair Seán Breathnach ó Rinn Ua gCuanach taom croí an tseachtain seo caite. Caitheadh é bhogadh ó Ospidéal na h-Ollscoile Port Láirge go Corcaigh mar nach raibh seirbhísí croí ar fáil ann i rith an deireadh seachtaine.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22340893/ 09 Eanáir 2024 - 'Dónal Ó Murchadha; Comhairle Pobail na Rinne''] Tá Dónal Ó Murchadha ceapaithe ina Chathaoirleach ar Chomhairle Pobail na Rinne.

=== Cartlann Bhóthar na Léinsí ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21835272/ 13 Meán Fómhair 2020 - ''Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin''] Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin, Baile na nGall, Rinn Ua gCuanach, ag cur síos ar an saol ina baile dúchais nuair a bhí sí óg. Craoladh é seo den chéad uair 09/04/1981.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21846130/ 04 Deireadh Fómhair 2020 - ''Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin & Cáit ‘An Bhab’ Feiritéar''] Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin, Rinn Ua gCuanach, & Cáit ‘An Bhab’ Feiritéar, Dún Chaoin i gcomhrá le chéile i 1985.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21856363/ 25 Deireadh Fómhair 2020 - ''Séimí Ó Cionnfhaola, Rinn Ua gCuanach''] Séimí Ó Cionnfhaola ag labhairt le Dóirín Mhic Mhurchadha fé bheith ag múineadh Gaolainne agus amhráin i Londain. Craolta 03/05/1976.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21920681/ 07 Márta 21 - ''Peig Bn. Uí Riagáin, An Rinn''] Dar le Peig Bn Uí Riagáin ón Rinn, ag labhairt di i 1993, b’amhail leis an difríocht idir cailc agus cáis an difríocht idir an charghas nuair a bhí sí óg agus carghas na linne seo.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21957613/ 23 Bealtaine 2021 - ''Micheál Ó Maoldomhnaigh, An Caisleán Nua, Co. Thiobrad Árainn''] Micheál Ó Maoldomhnaigh, An Caisleán Nua, Co. Thiobrad Árainn, ó Chartlann Raidió Éireann, deireadh na 1950í.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22016440/ 10 Deireadh Fómhair 2021 - ''Clár #55: Maidhc Dháith Turraoin, Rinn Ua gCuanach''] Clár ó 1958 le rí-sheanchaí na nDéise, Maidhc Dháith Turraoin (ó Chartlann Raidió Éireann).
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22051507/ 16 Eanáir 2022 - ''Clár #68: An Rinn & An Seanphobal''] Dhá agallamh a deineadh i gceantar Ghaeltachta na nDéise i 1994: - Séimín Ó Cionnfhaola ó Bhaile na nGall - Peig Móinbhíol ón Seanaphobal.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22058361/ 30 Eanáir 2022 - ''Clár #70: Lá le Bríde''] Naomh Bríd & a Féile - Joe Daly - Caitlín Mhic Eoin - Bab Feiritéar - Peig Uí Riagáin - Nell Tom Ní Ríordáin.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22113508/ 26 Meitheamh 2022 - ''Clár #91: Muintir na Rinne 1980''] Cois mara thoir sa Rinn i 1980 le: Tomás Ó Ceallaigh, Scipéara an bháid 'An Tyrone'; Déaglán Dúrta as an Seanaphobal; Liam Breathnach as Cnocán an Phaoraigh; An tAth. Tadhg Furlong, Sagart cúnta na Rinne; Úna Bn. Breathnach (Úna Parks).
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/22122453/ 17 Iúil 2022 - ''Clár #94: Pátrún na hAirde Móire & Páirc Uí Fhearchair''] Nioclás Breathnach ag cur síos ar Naomh Déaglán, Pátrún na hAirde Móire agus bruíonta baitíní, i 1998. Nioclás Mac Craith ag cur síos ar stair & seanchas Pháirc Uí Fhearchair i nDún Garbhán, 1995.

=== Cormac ag a Cúig ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20708215/ 07 Eanáir 2015 - ''Odí Ní Chéilleachair'']

=== Ríleanna agus Téipeanna ===

* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-01-feabhra-2009 01 Feabhra 2009] Ian Lee le píosaí cainte ón Rinn - Risteard Turraoin ó 1972 le Pádraig Tyers; Radio Pobail na Rinne 1978 - Nioclás MacCraith, Máire Nic Craith, Séamus MacCraith, Séamus Ó Faoláin (Séamusiín an Chnoic) Stás Ní Chrota, Neans Uí Bhraonáin páirteach ann. Cuid den eolas fá ainmneacha faighte ó dhaoine sa Rinn.
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-080209 08 Feabhra 2009] Seán Tóibín, Micheál Gaeltacht na Rinne ó Chartlann Fuaime RTÉ - Deaglán Ó Muiríosa, Séamus Ó Faoláin ag caint le Pádraig Tyers sna 70adaí; Na Prátaí Dubha á aithris ag Peig Uí Riagáin; Radio Pobail na Rinne ó 1978; Séamus MacCraith agus Liam Coistín agus Máire Nic Craith páirteach ann. Láithriú/Leiriú Ian Lee
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-15-feabhra-2009 15 Feabhra 2009] Seán Tóibín, Micheál Breathnach ón Rinn ag caint le Pádraig Tyers sa bhliain 1974. Laithriú/Leiriú: Ian Lee
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-220209 22 Feabhra 2009] Ábhar ón Rinn Co Phort Láirge
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-010309 01 Márta 2009] Ábhar ón Rinn Co Phort Láirge
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-080309 08 Márta 2009] Ábhar ón Rinn Co Phort Láirge
* [https://www.podcasts.com/rte-podchraoladh-rileanna-agus-teipeanna/episode/rleanna-agus-tipeanna-150309 15 Márta 2009] Seanchas agus scéalta faoi Naomh Pádraig

=== Siúlach Scéalach ===

* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20421440/ 13 Lúnasa 2013 - ''An tAthair Ó Flaithbhín sagart paróiste na Rinne sa bhliain 1972''] An tAthair Ó Flaithbhín sagart paróiste na Rinne ag cur sios ar an Rinn sna Déise mar leath-pharóiste agus aifrinn Ghaeilge sa cheantar.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20421441/ 13 Lúnasa 2013 - ''Liam Breathnach sa Rinn 1972''] Liam Breathnach ón Rinn ag cur síos ar an tsean-saol sa cheantar nuair nach raibh Béarla ar bith á labhairt, cúrsai iascaireachta, Coláiste na Rinne.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20421442/ 13 Lúnasa 2013 - ''Micheál Ó Domhnaill agus Coláiste na Rinne 1972''] Micheál Ó Domhnaill, bainisteoir Choláiste na Rinne ag cur síos ar thionchar an choláiste ar an cheantar agus an Béarla ag teacht chun cinn.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20421443/ 13 Lúnasa 2013 -''Muiris Ó Ceallaigh sa Rinn 1972''] Muiris Ó Ceallaigh iascaire as Heilbhic ag cur síos ar chúrsaí iascaireachta sa cheantar.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20462511/ 27 Deireadh Fómhair 2013 - ''Muintir na Rinne sna Déise 1974''] Seosamh Ó Foghlú, Nioclás MacCraith, Gearóid Ó Curraoin agus Dóirín Mhic Mhurchadha ag cur síos as an saol sa Rinn le hUinseann MacGruairc sa bhliain 1974.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20660604/ 06 Deireadh Fómhair 2014 - ''Seán Tóibín ón Rinn Co Phort Láirge''] Seán Tóibín ó Bhaile na nGall, An Rinn, ag caint le Pádraig Tyers fá chúrsaí iascaireachta ag tús na 70adaí.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20742176/ 02 Márta 2015 - ''Micheál Breathnach agus Pádraig Tyers sa Rinn''] Micheál Breathnach ag caint le Pádraig Tyers ar ché Bhaile na nGall sa Rinn fá sheoltóir (shark) a thug siad i dtír sa bhliain 1972.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20767800/ 20 Aibreán 2015 - ''Cáit Feiritéar, Nioclás Tóibín, Áine Ní Ghallchóir''] Cáit Féiritéar ag inse scéalta sa bhliain 1968 ina measc údar an amhráin a cheolann Nioclás Tóibín agus Áine Ní Ghallchhóir anseo, amhrán fá bhean a thug na síogaí leo.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20767797/ 20 Aibreán 2015 - ''Micheál Ó Maoldomhnaigh cainteoir ó dhúchas ó Thobraid Árann''] Micheál Ó Maoldomhnaigh cainteoir ó dhúchas Gaeilge ón Chaisleán Nua in aice le Cluain Meala i gCo. Thiobraid Árann agus Pádraig Ó Muiríosa ar a chéad chuairt ar a cheantar dúchais i dTiobrad Árann ó Mheiriceá agus Gaeilge aige go fóill.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20767796/ 20 Aibreán 2015 - ''Micheál Turraoin ón Rinn''] Micheál Turraoin ón Rinn ag caint le Padraig Tyers sa bhliain 1961 fá spailpíneacht agus eile.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20990722/ 16 Bealtaine 2016 - ''Séamus Ó Maolchatha údar''] Séamus Ó Maolchatha údar an leabhair 'An Gleann is a raibh ann' ag caint le Proinsias Ó Conluain.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/20997080/ 30 Bealtaine 2016 - ''Risteárd B Breathnach''] Risteárd B Breathnach, seaneolaí ar Ghaeilge na nDéise ag caint fán chanúint sin agus mar atá sí ag imeacht de réir a chéile.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21238761/ 24 Meán Fómhair 2017 - ''Uinseann Mac Ruairc agus Na Déise''] Tugann Uinseann Mac Ruairc a léargas féin dúinn ar litríocht agus ar cheol na nDéise. Craoladh 1972.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21277896/ 26 Samhain 2017 - ''Labhrás Ó Cadhla''] Labhrás Ó Cadha ag ceol agus ag caint fá chúpla amhrán do Chiarán Mac Mathúna sa Rinn sa bhliain 1957 ina measc 'Táiliúir a' Chroí Mhóir'; 'Sliabh Geal gCua' agus 'Caoineadh Dhiarmuid Stokes'.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21472711/ 02 Nollaig 2018 - ''An Rinn 1972''] Pádraig Tyers ag caint le muintir na Rinne sna Déise, Port Láirge, sa bhliain 1972 fá chúrsaí maireachtála agus neart eile.
* [https://www.rte.ie/radio/rnag/clips/21635903/ 13 Deireadh Fómhair 2019] Labhrann Alan Titley le hIan Lee fána rogha féin de mhíreanna as an tsraith seo. Frank O Connor, Peadar O Donnell, Sarah & Rita Keane, Nioclás Tóibín (agallamh amháin), Piaras Béaslaí, samplaí de Ghaeilge Dheisceart Thiobraid Árann agus Cho. Thír Eoghain, Mick O Connell agus mír as Fadhbanna Gaeilge le Tomás de Bhaldraithe sa chathaoir.

== WLR ==

=== Muintir na nDéise ===

[https://www.wlrfm.com/lifestyle/muintir-na-ndc3a9ise-a-new-all-irish-weekly-series-on-wlr-131053 Muintir na nDéise] - a series of interviews from Gaeltacht na nDéise, conducted in 2018:

* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/programme-1-pauline-ni-craith 7th June 2020 - ''Programme 1: Pauline Nic Craith''] Pauline Nic Craith, a native of An Rinn, who qualified as a nurse in the late 1940s and worked in Belfast during the troubles in the 1970s.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/programme-2-tomas-o-cellechair 14th June 2020 - ''Programme 2: Tomás Ó Céilleachar''] Tomás Ó Céilleachar was born in 1935 in Caherboshina in Corca Dhuibhne. He remembers moving to Ring in the late 1950s to take up a job teaching in Coláiste na Rinne and his years as publican of Tigh an Cheoil in the Ring village of Baile na nGall.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/program-3-siobhan-de-foirte-110620 21st June 2020 - ''Programme 3: Siobhán de Faoite''] Siobhán de Faoite, who was born in Old Parish before the end of World War 2, describes her life as a farmer’s daughter. She also speaks about her education, her married life and her membership of the Irish Countrywomen’s Association, a vital organization for women in rural Ireland in the 1970s.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/paidrig-seamus-program-4 28th June 2020 - ''Programme 4: Pádraig Seosamh Ó Mathúna''] Pádraig Seosamh Ó Mathúna, a farmer and an amateur actor, who was born in 1927, remembers his parents, going to mass in a pony and trap and later going to the mart in Dungarvan with his father.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/programme-5-caith-ni-craith 5th July 2020 - ''Programme 5: Cait Mhic Craith''] Cait Mhic Craith, a native of Clashmore in Co Waterford, remembers arriving in Ring in 1961 to take up her new job as junior house matron at Coláiste na Rinne.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/programme-6-nicolas-o-griofain 12th July 2020 - ''Programme 6: Nioclás Ó Gríofáin''] Nioclás Ó Gríofáin, a local historian and a native of Ring, was born in February, 1936. He remembers his school days, the prayers they had, the games they used to play and the way the community would gather to listen to the radio on the Sunday of a big match.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/mnd-prog7 19th July 2020 - ''Programme 7: Máiréad Uí Mhuirithe''] Mairéad Uí Mhuirithe, who grew up in the Ring Gaeltacht, also remembers her parents, her teachers, her childhood and her late husband, Patsy Murray.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/mnd-prog8 26th July 2020 - ''Programme 8: Tomás Ó Curraoin''] Tomás Ó Curraoin, who was born in 1941, became an electrician and worked for many years in Waterford city. He remembers life as a boy when he worked on the farm milking cows before and after school.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/mnd-prog9 2nd August 2020 - ''Programme 9: Nóirín Uí Chionaola''] Nóirín Uí Chionaola, another interviewee, was born in 1928. The eldest in her family, she grew up in Ballingarry in Co Limerick and remembers the thrill of the arrival of her baby sister. She also talks about her life married to Domhnall Ó Cionaola and their life together. Now in her nineties, Nóirín remembers her first visits to Baile na nGall in An Rinn in the 1950s where she heard singing in the pub there, including singers such as her husband and the late Nioclás Tóibín.
* [https://www.spreaker.com/user/wlrfm/mnd-prog10 9th August 2020 - ''Programme 10: Mícheál Seosamh de Paor''] Mícheál Seosamh de Paor, who passed away on 8 March 2020, remembers his mother and father and his youth growing up in Old Parish as well as his life as a father and a husband. And he talks about the heartbreak he felt on the tragic and untimely death of his late wife Mairéad.

== Song ==

* [https://open.spotify.com/album/5iXz2Nh9UmtOnL9TmTHcDe?si=4R5uZ6icTOm7kvBVddTxwg Labhras Ó Cadhla - ''Amhráin ó Shliabh gCua'']
* [https://open.spotify.com/album/6mO1TsSUWnJJlzfSmxTG6Q?si=LRzraBu5SUu9laYK0t95HA Nioclás Tóibín - ''Amhráin Aneas'']

= Bibliography =

* Breatnach, R. B. (1961). "Initial Mutation of Substantives after Preposition + Singular Article in Déise Irish". ''Éigse: A Journal of Irish Studies''. '''IX''' (IV). The National University of Ireland.
* Breatnach, R. B. (1984). ''Seana-Chaint na nDéise II: Studies in the Vocabulary and Idiom of Déise Irish based mainly on material collected by Archbishop Michael Sheehan (1870-1945)''. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* de Bhial, T. (1985). ''A Cabhsa: 2,000 abairtí samplacha Gaeilge''. An Gúm.
* Ó Cionnfhaolaidh, M. (1956). ''Beatha Mhichíl Turraoin: Maille le Sceulta agus Seanachas''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Cuirrín, S. (1936). "Beirt Dhéiseach". ''Beirt Dhéiseach mar atá: Sceul nua-cheaptha, agus Trí Sceulta arna dtiontódh ó theangthacha eile''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Cuív, B. (1993). ''Irish Dialects and Irish-Speaking Districts: Three Lectures'' (1993 reprint). School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Ó Fiannusa, P. (2008). ''Ghaibh a Leithéid an tSlí Tráth'' (second edition). Cló Chois Móire.
* Ó hAirt, D. (1988). ''Díolaim Dhéiseach''. Acadamh Ríoga na hÉireann, Baile Athá Cliath.
* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (unpublished). ''An Gleann is a Raibh Ann'' (one of two original manuscripts).
* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1938). "Eachtra Shéimín Paor". ''As na Ceithre hÁirdibh: cnuasach gearr-scéal''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1953). ''Dualgas Pheadair Bhig''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1974). ''An Gleann agus a Raibh Ann'' (1974 edition). An Clóchomhar Tta. Dundalgen Press.
* O'Rahilly, T. F. (1988). ''Irish Dialects Past and Present: with Chapters on Scottish and Manx'' (1988 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Sheehan, Most Rev. M. (1944). ''Sean-Chaint na nDéise: the Idiom of Living Language'' (second edition). The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Tóibín, N. (1979). ''Duanaire Déiseach'' (second edition). Sáirséal agus Dill, Baile Átha Cliath.
* Wagner, H. (1981). ''Linguistic Atlas and Survey of Irish Dialects: Vol. I. Introduction, 300 maps'' (1981 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Wagner, H. (1982). ''Linguistic Atlas and Survey of Irish Dialects: Vol. II. The Dialects of Munster'' (1982 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Ward, A. (1974). ''The Grammatical Structure of Munster Irish''. University of Dublin.

= References =

<references />

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Déise Irish]]

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2023-12-06T23:36:52Z

Erisceres: /* Simple Classification Clauses */

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicate that carries the syntactical stress.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicate''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. In this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicate''' in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicate''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicate''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' in the original '''predicate''' position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicate''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicate pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}; {{color|Blue|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}, {{color|Blue|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicate ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicate ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicate ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,2 is it?3 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position. 
3 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

[[Category:Irish]]
[[Category:Ó Nualláin]]

Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns

2023-10-18T23:18:52Z

Erisceres: /* Links */

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun nor a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” <ref group="note">There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.</ref> – which is the description being used to classify the subject. In copular classification clauses, it is the predicate that carries the syntactical stress.

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

= Simple Classification Clauses =

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

To form the '''present negative''' in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the '''present interrogative''', ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the '''predicate''' or '''subject'''. Rather, the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' – ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' – is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.” <ref group="note" name="sea">The combination ''is ea'' is always pronounced as ''sea'' and often written as such (or ''’sea'').</ref>

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.” <ref group="note" name="ní hea">The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.</ref>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?” <ref group="note">The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. in this format, the '''subsubject pronoun''' – ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the '''predicate interrogative pronoun''' – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the '''subject''' ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é}}'' in the '''subject''' refers to the '''predicate''' in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?” <ref group="note">''Cad é an rud é sin?'' – this type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”</ref>
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

= Emphatic Classification Clauses =

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the '''predicate''' as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the '''predicate''' before the '''copula''', placing the '''indefinite subpredicate pronoun''' in the original '''predicate''' position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

Likewise, the true '''predicate''' can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The '''interrogative predicate pronoun''' ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' <ref group="note">The prepostional pronoun ''acu'' refers to the presented alteratives, ''cé acu'' generally translating to “which of these is it”.</ref> is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the '''conjunction''' ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”

If neither alternative is correct, the following format would be used in the response:
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}; {{color|Blue|lasán}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen; it is a match.”

Alternatively, the correct information can be given in a simple format without emphasis
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|Green|é}}, {{color|Blue|ach lasán}}.'' – “It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Notes on the forms of emphasis:''' 
In response to the English question “Is that a book?”, one might answer “It is.” with tonal emphasis on the verb “is”. In Irish, emphasis may be delivered by tone, form or through syntactical structure:
# In copular clauses, the copula itself never recieves tonal emphasis. The response to the Irish question ''“An leabhar é sin?”'' places tonal emphasis on the predicate ''“Ní hea.”''. This is still technically true for the positive response ''“Is ea.”'', but as this structure is contracted to a single syllable in speech, it may seem as if the copula is also included in the tonal emphasis. <ref group="note" name="sea"/> Rather, it is probably due to the unstressed nature of the copula that encourages such contractions in the first place.
# Various forms—including verbs, nouns and pronouns—have emphatic forms through the addition of suffixes ''-sa'' and ''-se'':
#* ''mé'' : ''mise'' – “I”, “me”
#* ''tú'' : ''tusa'' – “you” (sng.)
#* ''mo leabhar'' : ''mo leabharsa'' – “my book”
#* ''do chuais'' : ''do chuais-se'' – “you went”
# A form can be emphasised through syntactical structure by its position within a copular clause. This can be seen in the response to the Irish question ''“An peann é?”'' with ''“Leabhar is ea é.”'' by placing the predicate ''leabhar'' at the start of the clause and following it with the copula and subpredicate ''is ea''.
It's possible to combine all three forms of emphasis within a single clause as demonstrated by ''“Domsa is ea is ceart é dhéanamh.”'' “For me, it is right to do.”, i.e. “It is the right thing to do for me.”
</div>

= Vocabulary =

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative <ref group="note">The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.</ref>
* ''ní'' H – present negative <ref group="note" name="ní hea"/>
* ''an'' – present interrogative <ref group="note">The present interrogative form of the copula – ''an'' – should not be confused with ''an'', a form of the definite article, e.g. ''an rud'' – “the thing”.</ref>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “him”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é'' – “the thing it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?” <ref group="note" name="cad and cé">It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.</ref>
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented) <ref group="note" name="cad and cé"/>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

= Salutations =

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Exercises =

Exercises I and IV from Lesson I of the book are intended for the practical classroom environment and are thus not applicable here.

'''Exercise II:'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''

'''Exercise III:'''

Translate into Irish:
# This is not a pen; it is a pencil.
# Is that a pencil? Yes. Is this? No.
# What is it?1 A book.
# Is that a book? No, but a box.
# Whether is this a box or a purse? It's a purse.
# This is a match,2 is it?3 Yes.

'''Hints:'''

1 ''Cad é an rud é?'' (Don't use ''é sin'' or ''é seo'' twice of the same object in two successive questions.) 
2 Emphatic position. 
3 ''An ea?''

= Links =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish#Table_of_Contents | Table of Contents]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

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Erisceres: /* Table of Contents */

Gearóid Ó Nualláin's ''Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish''

= Table of Contents =

[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_I:_Classification_Clauses_with_Masculine_Nouns | Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns]] 
[[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

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Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns

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Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish

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Gearóid Ó Nualláin's ''Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish''

= Table of Contents =

# [[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_I:_Classification_Clauses_with_Masculine_Nouns | Lesson I: Classification Clauses with Masculine Nouns]]
# [[Irish/Introduction_to_Studies_in_Modern_Irish/Lesson_II:_Classification_Clauses_with_Feminine_Nouns | Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns]]

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Irish/Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish/Lesson II: Classification Clauses with Feminine Nouns

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Erisceres: Created page with "'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{..."