Seall an tùs aig User:Erisceres/O'Nolan's Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish

= Lesson I: Classification Sentences Using Masculine Nouns and Pronouns with the Copula and an Indefinite Predicate =

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

'''Simple Classification Clauses:'''

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''' '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is <u>always indefinite</u>; it cannot be a definite noun or a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” – which is the description being used to classify the subject.

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.
</div>

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

To form the present negative in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the present interrogative, ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

== Questions with Simple Responses ==

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the predicate or subject. Rather, the indefinite subpredicate pronoun – ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' – is employed '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.”

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.
</div>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding conjunction ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but” '''⟨{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Blue|P}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.
</div>

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by the predicate interrogative pronoun ''{{color|Blue|cad}}'' and no suggestion is offered as to the classification. in this format, the subsubject pronoun ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the predicate interrogative pronoun – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the subject ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), while the ''{{color|Green|é}}'' in the subject refers to the predicate in question '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|LimeGreen|s}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' This type of question is used when no suggestion is given as to the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”
</div>

== Questions with Emphatic Responses ==

When responding in the negative, the correct information can be given in response by placing emphasis on the predicate as a means of contrasting with the previously suggested information. This is done by placing the predicate before the copula, placing the indefinite subpredicate pronoun in the original predicate position '''⟨{{color|Blue|P}}{{color|Red|C}}{{color|DeepSkyBlue|p}}{{color|Green|S}}⟩''':

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}; {{color|Blue|peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It isn't; it is a pen.”

<div class="warningbox">'''Note:'''
In this type of syntax where the predicated is headed by the interrogative predicate pronoun ''{{color|blue|cé acu}}'', an alternative is presented, divided by the conjunction ''{{color|blue|nó}}''; the preceding prepositional pronoun ''{{color|blue|acu}}'' refers to this presented alternative.

e.g. ''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo?}}'' “Is this a book or a pen?”
</div>

Likewise, the true predicate can be emphasised when multiple options are presented in a question. The interrogative predicate pronoun ''{{color|Blue|cé acu}}'' is used to present multiple alternatives in a question, with the conjunction ''{{color|Blue|nó}}'' dividing the alternatives:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|Green|é seo}}?'' – “Which is this, a book or a pen?”
* —''{{color|Blue|Peann}} {{color|Red|is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a pen.”
* ''{{color|blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|green|é sin}}? {{color|red|Ní}} {{color|blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|green|é}}, {{color|blue|ach lasán}}.'' “Which is that, a book or a pen? It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

== Vocabulary ==

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''is'' – present affirmative
* ''ní<sup>H</sup>'' – present negative
* ''an'' – present interrogative

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' The present affirmative form of the copula is often dropped in speech, e.g. ''leabhar é'' – “it is a book”.
</div>

'''Pronouns:'''

* ''é'' – “he”, “it” (masc.)
* ''é seo'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''é sin'' – “that” (masc.)
* ''an rud é sin'' – “the thing that it is” (masc.)
* ''ea'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
* ''cad … ?'' – “what … ?”
* ''cé acu … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented)

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' It could be said that the copular is already contained within interrogative predicate pronouns, thus clauses using them have no separate copular element.
</div>

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”
* ''rud'' – “a thing”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

== Salutations ==

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)

== Exercises ==

'''Exercise II'''

Translate into English:
# ''Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é.''
# ''An leabhar é sin? Ní hea; lasán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu bosca nó sparán é seo? Sparán is ea é.''
# ''Cé acu leabhar nó lasán é sin? Ní leabhar ná lasán é, ach peann.''
# ''An peann é sin? Is ea.''
# ''An bosca é seo? Ní hea, ach bord.''