Seall an tùs aig User:Erisceres/Chronological Developments in the Celtic Languages

This page will detail the chronological developments of the Celtic languages, with a focus on Goidelic (for now).

= From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic =

== Proto-Indo-European ==

=== Non-Syllabic Phonemes and Their Syllabic Allophones ===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ PIE Plosives<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 53-60.</ref>
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Non-Syllabic
|- class="small"
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Coronal
! colspan="3" | Dorsal
|- class="small"
! Palatal
! Velar
! Labiovelar
|-
! Tenuis
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>p''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>t''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲ''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ''}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲ''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}}
|-
! Murmured
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲʱ''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ''}}
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ PIE Fricatives
! rowspan="2" | 
! colspan="2" | Non-Syllabic
! rowspan="4" | 
! Syllabic
|- class="small"
! Coronal
! Postvelar<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 62-4</ref><ref group="note">{{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h''}} covers all potential non-syllabic postvelars.</ref>
! Postvelar<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 62</ref><ref group="note">{{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə''}} covers all potential syllabic postvelars.</ref><ref group="note">The syllabic postvelars are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.</ref>
|-
! Sibilant<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 60</ref>
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>s''}}
| 
| 
|-
! Non-Sibilant
| 
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₃''}}
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ PIE Sonorants
! rowspan="3" | 
! colspan="4" | Non-Syllabic<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 60-1</ref>
! rowspan="7" | 
! rowspan="3" | 
! colspan="4" | Syllabic
|- class="small"
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Coronal
! colspan="2" | Dorsal
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Coronal
! colspan="2" | Short Monophthong<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 62, 66</ref><ref group="note">These vowels are allophonic to their non-syllabic semivowel counterparts.</ref>
|- class="small"
! Palatal
! Labiovelar
! Front Unrounded
! Back Rounded
|-
! Lateral
| 
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>l''}}
| 
| 
! Lateral<ref name="F09pp61-2">Fortson 2009, pp. 61-2</ref><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants">The syllabic liquids and nasals are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.</ref>
| 
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>l̩''}}
| 
| 
|-
! Rhotic
| 
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>r''}}
| 
| 
! Rhotic<ref name="F09pp61-2"/><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants"/>
| 
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>r̩''}}
| 
| 
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
| 
| 
! Nasal<ref name="F09pp61-2"/><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants"/>
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m̩''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n̩''}}
| 
| 
|-
! Semivowel
| 
| 
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>w''}}
! Close
| 
| 
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>i''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
|}

=== Syllabic Phonemes ===

To do

=== Onset Clusters ===

The following onset clusters<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 64-6</ref> are possible in PIE phonotactics:

==== Plosive Initial ====

* plosive + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pro''}} "forward"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pneu-''}} "breath"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>tjegʷ-''}} "revere"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dlegʱ-''}} "engage oneself"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱwer-''}} "door"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʲneh₃-''}} "know"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷrei-''}} "buy"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷjeh₃-''}} "live"
* voiceless labial plosive + voicless coronal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pter-''}} "wing"
* voiceless coronal plosive + voiceless dorsal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>tkʲei-''}} "settle"
* voiceless labial plosive + sibilant + voiceless coronal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pster-''}} "sneeze"

==== Sibilant Initial ====

* sibilant + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sreu-''}} "flow"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sjuh-''}} "sew"
* sibilant + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>spend-''}} "pour a libation"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>skʲeh₂i-''}} "shadow"
* sibilant + postvelar
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sh₂eh₁-i-''}} "bind"
* sibilant + plosive + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>splei-''}} "split"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>streng-''}} "squeeze, tie"

==== Postvelar Initial ====

* postvelar + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁leudʱ-''}} "go"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁jeh₁-''}} "throw"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂wes-''}} "spend the night"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂ner-''}} "man"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃meigʲʱ-''}} "urinate"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃regʲ-''}} "stretch out the hands"
* postvelar + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃bʱel-''}} "be of use"
* postvelar + sibilant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁sih₁-''}} "be" (optative pl. stem)
* postvelar + sibilant + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂ster-''}} "star"
* postvelar + sibilant + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁sjeh₁-''}} "be" (optative sg. stem)

==== Sonorant Initial ====

* labial or labiovelar sonorant + coronal sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mleuh₂-''}} "speak"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mregʲʱu-''}} "short"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mneh₂-''}} "be mindful"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>wleikʷ-''}} "flowing, liquid"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>wreh₂d-''}} "branch, root"

== Developments Towards Proto-Celtic ==

=== Plosives ===

The palatal plosives merged with the velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189">Stifter 2017, p. 1189</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʲ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>g'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>g''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʲʱ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʱ''}}

Following the palatal-velar plosive merger, sequences of palatal plosives followed by labiovelar semivowels would merge to become labiovelar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲw'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kw'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʲw'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gw'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʲʱw''> ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʱw'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷʱ''}}

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a palatal semivowel, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>g'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʱ'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a coronal nasal, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>g'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʱ'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a close back rounded vowel, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>g'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʱ'' /_''<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}

Following the above developments, the voiced labiovelar plosive merged with the voiced labial plosive:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}

Then the murmured labiovelar plosive became the Proto-Celtic voiced labiovelar plosive:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʷ''}}

The remaining murmured plosives merged with their voiced counterparts:<ref>Stifter 2017, pp. 1189-90</ref><ref group="note">Stifter also offers an alternative, albeit more complex, development at this stage.</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʲʱ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʲ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʲ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>gʱ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>g'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>g''}}

= Developments from Proto-Celtic =

To do

== From Proto-Celtic to Gaulish ==

To do

== From Proto-Celtic to Celtiberian ==

To do

== From Proto-Celtic to Insular Celtic ==

To do

= Developments from Insular Celtic =

To do

== From Insular Celtic to Common Brittonic ==

To do

== From Insular Celtic to Primitive Irish ==

To do

= Developments in Goidelic=

To do

== From Primitive Irish to Early Old Irish ==

To do

= Notes =

<references group="note"/>

= Bibliography =

* Fortson IV, B. W. (2009). ''Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, 2nd Edition''. Wiley-Blackwell.
* McCone, K. (1996). "Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change". ''Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics''. Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, Saint Patrick’s College.
* Stifter, David (2006). ''Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners''. Syracuse University Press.
* Stifter, David (2017). "The phonology of Celtic". ''Handbook of Comparataive and Historical Indo-European Linguistics''. Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston.
* Thurneysen, R. (1946; 2003 reprint). ''A Grammar of Old Irish: Translated from the German by D.A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin, with supplement''. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.

= References =

<references />