Gweld cod y dudalen User:Erisceres/O'Nolan's Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish

= Lesson I: Classification Sentences Using Masculine Nouns and Pronouns with the Copula and an Indefinite Predicate =

'''Key:''' {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|DeepSkyBlue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subpredicate⟩}}'''}}, {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}, {{color|LimeGreen|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subsubject⟩}}'''}}.

'''Simple Classification Clauses:'''

In simple classification syntax, the '''indefinite predicate''' follows immediately after the '''copula''', and precedes the '''subject''':

* {{color|Red|'''{{smallcaps|⟨copula⟩}}'''}} + {{color|Blue|'''{{smallcaps|⟨predicate⟩}}'''}} + {{color|Green|'''{{smallcaps|⟨subject⟩}}'''}}
* ''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

The '''copula''' is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is ''{{color|Red|is}}''.

The '''predicate''' is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is <u>always indefinite</u>; it cannot be a definite noun or a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun ''{{color|Blue|leabhar}}'' – “(a) book” – which is the description being used to classify the subject.

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, ''leabhar'' can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.
</div>

The '''subject''' is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|Green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

To form the present negative in classification syntax, the copular form ''{{color|Red|ní}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is not a book.”

To form the present interrogative, ''{{color|Red|an}}'' is used:

* ''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”

A response to such a question doesn't repeat the predicate or subject. Rather, the indefinite subpredicate pronoun – ''{{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}'' – is employed:

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}?'' – “Is it a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|ea}}.'' – “It is.”

The negative response would be:

* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}.'' – “It isn't.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' The present negative copular form ''ní'' causes ''h''-prothesis on the following word, hence ''hea''.
</div>

Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding conjunction ''{{color|Blue|ach}}'' – “but”:

* —''{{color|Red|An}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é sin}}?'' – “Is that a book?”
* —''{{color|Red|Ní}} {{color|DeepSkyBlue|hea}}, {{color|Blue|ach peann}}.'' – “It isn't, but a pen.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' The subject often employs the demonstratives ''seo'', ''sin'' and ''siúd'' – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.
</div>

A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by a predicate interrogative pronoun; in this format, the subsubject pronoun ''{{color|LimeGreen|é}}'' – following the predicate interrogative pronoun – refers directly to ''{{color|Green|an rud}}'' in the subject ''{{color|Green|an rud é sin}}'', while the ''{{color|Green|é}}'' in the subject refers to the object in question itself:

* —''{{color|Blue|Cad}} {{color|LimeGreen|é}} {{color|Green|an rud é sin}}?'' – “What is it, the thing that that is?”
* —''{{color|Red|Is}} {{color|Blue|leabhar}} {{color|Green|é}}.'' – “It is a book.”

<div class="warningbox">
'''Note:''' This type of question is used when no attempt is made to guess the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”
</div>

== The Present Copula ==

The copula is the element that links the subject to a predicate. The affirmative copula is often dropped in speech.

'''Forms of the Copula:'''

* ''{{color|red|is}}'' – affirmative copula
* ''{{color|red|ní}}<sup>H</sup>'' – negative copula
* ''{{color|red|an}}'' – interogative copula

== The Indefinite Predicate ==

The predicate is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun or a personal pronoun.

'''Indefinite Predicate Pronoun:'''

In classification sentences, the predicate is typically a noun used to classify the subject with. When emphasis is placed on the predicate, the indefinite subpredicate pronoun in also employed in conjunction.

* ''{{color|blue|ea}}'' – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun

'''Interrogative Predicate Pronouns:'''

Clauses using the interrogative predicate pronouns already have the copula within them, thus no separate copular element is used in such a clause.

* ''{{color|blue|cad}} … ?'' – “what … ?”
* ''{{color|blue|cé acu}} … ?'' – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented)

<div class="warningbox">'''Note:'''
In this type of syntax where the predicated is headed by the interrogative predicate pronoun ''{{color|blue|cé acu}}'', an alternative is presented, divided by the conjunction ''{{color|blue|nó}}''; the preceding prepositional pronoun ''{{color|blue|acu}}'' refers to this presented alternative.

e.g. ''{{color|blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|green|é seo?}}'' “Is this a book or a pen?”
</div>

== The Masculine Subject ==

The subject is the element that is being described. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun ''{{color|green|é}}'' is used for the subject.

'''Subject Pronouns and Nouns:'''

* ''{{color|green|é}}'' – masculine subject pronoun
* ''{{color|green|é seo}}'' – “this” (masc.)
* ''{{color|green|é sin}}'' – “that” (masc.)

With a definite noun subject, a subsubject pronoun is usually employed proleptically to the subject.

* ''{{color|green|<u>é</u> an rud é sin}}'' – “it, the thing that it is” (masc.)

<div class="warningbox">'''Note:'''
The initial proleptic pronoun ''{{color|green|é}}'' refers to ''{{color|green|an rud}}'' (''rud'' being a masculine noun), not to the predicate as with ''{{color|green|é sin}}''.
</div>

== General Vocabulary ==

'''Masculine Nouns:'''

* ''leabhar'' – “a book”
* ''peann'' – “a pen”
* ''peann luaidhe'' – “a pencil”
* ''bosca'' – “a box”
* ''bord'' – “a table”
* ''lasán'' – “a match”
* ''sparán'' – “a purse”

'''Conjunctions:'''

* ''nó'' – “or”
* ''ná'' – “nor”
* ''ní … ná'' – “neither … nor”
* ''ach'' – “but”

== Syntax ==

In simple classification syntax, the indefinite predicate follows immediately after the copula, and precedes the subject:
* '''copula''' + '''predicate''' + '''subject'''
* ''{{color|red|Is}} {{color|blue|leabhar}} {{color|green|é}}.'' “It is a book.”

Where the indefinite predicate is emphasised, it precedes the copula while the indefinite subpredicate pronoun ''{{color|blue|ea}}'' (only used in copular clauses) takes its original position:
* '''predicate''' + '''copula''' + ''{{color|blue|ea}}'' + '''subject'''
* ''{{color|blue|Leabhar {{color|red|is}} ea}} {{color|green|é}}.'' “It is a book” (rather than anything else suggested).

When responding to the interrogative, a simple response contains just the copula followed by {{color|blue|ea}}'':
* '''copula''' + ''{{color|blue|ea}}''
* ''{{color|red|An}} {{color|blue|peann}} {{color|green|é}}? {{color|red|Is}} {{color|blue|ea}}.'' “Is it a pen? Yes.”

When responding in the negative, the correct information can follow with a preceding ''{{color|blue|ach}}'':
* ''{{color|red|ní}} {{color|blue|hea}}'', ''{{color|blue|ach}}'' + '''predicate'''
* ''{{color|red|An}} {{color|blue|leabhar}} {{color|green|é sin}}? {{color|red|Ní}} {{color|blue|hea}}, {{color|blue|ach peann}}.'' “Is that a book? No, but a pen.”

In the interrogative where the predicate is unknown, interrogative predicate pronouns are used instead of the copula:
* ''{{color|blue|Cad}} {{color|green|é an rud é sin}}? {{color|red|Is}} {{color|blue|leabhar}} {{color|green|é}}.'' “What is that thing? It is a book.”
* ''{{color|blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|green|é seo}}? {{color|blue|Peann}} {{color|red|is}} {{color|blue|ea}} {{color|green|é}}.'' “Which is this, a book or a pen? It is a pen.”
* ''{{color|blue|Cé acu leabhar nó peann}} {{color|green|é sin}}? {{color|red|Ní}} {{color|blue|leabhar ná peann}} {{color|green|é}}, {{color|blue|ach lasán}}.'' “Which is that, a book or a pen? It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”

== Salutations ==

* ''Dia is Muire dhuit.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh.'' – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
* ''Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to one person)
* ''Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig.'' – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
* ''Slán agat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
* ''Slán agaibh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
* ''Slán leat.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
* ''Slán libh.'' – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)