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'''Classical Gaelic''' or '''Classical Irish''' ('''Gáoidhealg''' or '''Gaoidhealg''' {{IPA|/ɡəːð´əlɡ ~ ɡəːɣ´əlɡ/}} in the language itself) was the standard language of bardic poetry in Ireland and Scotland between 13th and 18th century. It was created in late 12th century by poets trying to bring the poetic language closer to the vernacular of that time, the standard allowed a lot of spoken forms used in the dialects of late 12th century, even though it was itself highly prescriptive.<ref name="ling-training" group="gr" /> While the spoken language evolved, the grammar of the language used in poetry was kept fixed throughout centuries (although new vocabulary was being adopted with every generation of poets). The spoken language of 13th–18th century Ireland (and one used in prose texts) is called ''Early Modern Irish'' while the term ''Classical Gaelic'' is typically reserved for the standardized conservative language of the bardic poetry. This article deals with elements of grammar of this bardic standard (although it might mention some developments rejected in the bardic standard occasionally). But bear in mind it’s more of a random collection of notes (mostly from ''Bardic Syntactical Tracts''<ref name="BST" group="gr" /> and ''IGT i''<ref name="ABP" group="gr" /><ref name="IGT" group="gr" />) than a comprehensive grammar. It’s also a work in progress. == Orthography == Early Modern Irish and Scottish manuscripts vary a lot in the spelling they used. The earliest manuscripts use basically the Middle Irish spelling that’s closer to [[Old Irish/Guide to Old Irish spelling|Old Irish system]] than to modern orthography, later ones start to write consonants in a more modern way and mark lenition (semi-)consistently using ''ponc séimhithe'' (dot placed above the letter, sometimes a little ''h'' instead of a dot) but there are several ways to mark eclipsis (namely, the letters ''t'' and ''c'' are often doubled to ''tt, cc'' in eclipsing context). [TODO: expand] Modern normalized editions of Classical Gaelic and Early Modern Irish texts often use the modern pre-reform Irish spelling as one can find eg. in Dinneen’s dictionary. But that’s often not the spelling used in manuscripts – and one won’t find it often in dyplomatic editions of classical texts. Among the common differences between the spellings used commonly in manuscripts and the modern normalized spelling are: # the clusters {{IPA|/st, sk, sp/}} are written ''sd, sg, sb'' (this varies in normalized texts), eg. ''inn'''sg'''ne, sub'''sd'''ainnteach'' vs ''in'''sc'''ne, sub'''st'''ainteach'', # the ‘long diphthongs’ and the ''ao'' vowel mark their length with a ‘fada’: ''G'''áoi'''dhealg, t'''áo'''bh, s'''ía'''d, '''ía'''sg, b'''úa'''dh'' vs modern ''G'''aoi'''dhealg, t'''ao'''bh, s'''ia'''d, '''ia'''sc/'''ia'''sg, b'''ua'''dh'', # the long ''é'' before a broad consonant stands on its own, breaking the ''leathan le leathan'' rule (while it is the expected ''éi'' before a slender one): ''d'''é'''namh, b'''é'''l, sl'''é'''gar'' but '''''Éi'''re'' vs ''d'''éa'''namh, b'''éa'''l, sl'''éa'''gar, '''Éi'''re'', # eclipsis of ''t'' and ''c'' written as ''tt'', ''cc'' (and ''pp'' for ''p''?): ''a '''tt'''igh'' ‘in a house’ vs ''i '''dt'''igh / a '''dt'''igh''. This page follows the spelling conventions of Mac Cárthaigh edition of ''Irish Grammatical Tracts I'' (''“The Art of Bardic Poetry”, ABP'') <ref name="ABP" group="gr" />, that is, unlike most modern editions, it normalizes the spelling to form closer to the older usage described above. [TODO: something about spelling of reduced unstressed vowels: ''a'' vs ''u'' vs ''o''; ''i'' vs ''ei''] == Declension == === Cases === Classical Gaelic nouns and adjectives were declined in 5 distinct grammatical cases: * nominative (''ainm'', lit. ‘name’) – the grammatical subject of the verb and also predicative of copular clauses, * accusative (often ''réim'', lit. ‘succession’, the term is used generally for ‘an oblique case’, accusative plural is often called ''tochlaghadh, tochlughadh'') – the direct object of a verb, also complement of some prepositions, especially when movement is involved, * genitive (''táoibhréim'', lit. ‘side-case, by-case’) – expresses possessor, or otherwise connects two nouns (like in Modern Irish or Scottish Gaelic), * dative (''tuilréim, tuillréim'') – used for complements of most prepositions (so perhaps ''prepositional'' would be a better name), * vocative (sometimes ''agallaimh, gairm agallmha'', ‘address, addressing call’, typically not recognized as separate case in classical grammars) – used when directly addressing someone or something. The case system of Old Irish (which itself lost most of case endings due to apocope) got somewhat eroded during Middle Irish times because of the loss of distinction between unstressed /ə/ and /u/, and also merging of all unstressed absolute final vowels. Nevertheless all the Old Irish cases and their uses survived til Classical Gaelic times even if their forms merged in some noun classes. Classical grammars recognize two grammatical genders: masculine (''feirinnsgne'') and feminine (''baininnsgne''), with the nouns whose accusative singular is the same as nominative singular (ie. mostly nouns declining according to old o-stem pattern) commonly referred to as ‘masculine’, and those whose acc. sg. = dat. sg. (mostly those declining acc. to old ā-stem pattern and consonant stems) referred to as ‘feminine’ (even if actually belonging to the other gender). === Réim connsaine === When a noun was a direct object of the verb it generally had to be in the accusative case and underwent lenition. This lenition is called ''réim connsaine'' (lit. ‘consonant accusative’ or ‘consonant case’). If the noun declined according to masculine pattern, ie. it had its acc. sg. form equal to nom. sg., then ''réim connsaine'' was optional and nominative could be used instead. When one used a noun with a ‘feminine’ declension (ie. the acc. sg. differed from nom. sg.), then both lenition and accusative form were obligatory: * ''do-chiú '''ch'''náoi '''ng'''il'' ‘I see a bright nut’ – here the lenited accusative form ''chnáoi'' must be used since it differs from nominative ''cnú'', it also must eclipse its attributes, since accusative case requires eclipsis, * ''ní fhaca '''ch'''oin'' ‘I did not see a dog’, ''ní fhaca bhoin'' ‘I did not see a cow’ – the acc. sg. forms differ from nom. ''cú'' ‘a dog’ and ''bó'' ‘a cow’, * ''do bhúaileas '''ch'''oin '''ng'''il '''ng'''irr '''cc'''áoich'' ‘I hit/stroke a blind short bright dog’, but: * ''do-chiú '''sh'''úil '''ng'''il'' or ''do-chiú '''s'''úil '''gh'''eal'' ‘I see a bright eye’, because acc. sg. ''súil'' is the same as nominative, * ''do mharbhas '''fh'''ear '''mb'''eag'' or ''do mharbhas '''f'''ear '''b'''eag'' ‘I killed a small man’ – because ''fear'' is both nominative and accusative form, either can be used; the only requirement being that if the direct object is lenited (has ''réim connsaine''), then it must eclipse its attribute, because it is visibly accusative. Since many nouns have accusative plural (''tochlaghadh'') distinct from their nominative plural, they also are lenited: * ''do-chiú '''fh'''iora beaga'' ‘I see small men’ – acc. pl. distinct from nom. pl. ''fir bheaga'', * also note eg. ''dún do liobhra'' ‘close your books’ – acc. pl. distinct from nom. pl. ''leabhair'' (even though lenition is not visible in writing, and it’s required here by possessive ''do'' ‘your’). The accusative singular definite article eclipses: * ''gearr an '''cc'''ráoibh'' ‘cut the branch’ (nom. sg. ''an chráobh''), * ''muirfead an '''bhf'''ilidh'' ‘I will kill the poet’ (nom. sg. ''an file'') but the eclipsis is optional in direct objects if the form is the same as nominative (a similar rule to ''réim connsaine''): * ''gonfad an '''bhf'''ear'' or ''gonfad an '''f'''ear'' ‘I will wound the man’. [TODO: other situations where acc. form is suppressed – infix pronouns, use of verbal noun phrases, dir. obj. after ''acht, nó'', etc.] === Slégar === Classical Gaelic had a peculiar rule regarding attributed nouns in the genitive case. The rule is called ''slégar'' (''sléagar'' in modern spelling, sometimes also ''slégur, sléagur''). As explained in Mac Cárthaigh’s ABP<ref name="ABP" group="gr" />, pp. 295–298, see also his article<ref name="sleagar" group="gr" />, ''slégar'' can be applied in phrases that have structure like this: {| class="wikitable" |- ! beginning ! middle ! end |- | noun | noun (or two) in the genitive | noun in the genitive<br /> or adjective<br /> or ''sloinneadh'' (surname in the genitive form, like ''mheic Dhíarmada'' or ''Í Bhríain'') |} In phrases like that one can: * change eclipsis or lack of lenition in the ''middle'' part into lenition, * or remove lenition in the ''middle'' part. Thus the regular grammatical way to state ‘with the wife of Brian mac Taidhg’ would be: * ''le mnáoi '''mBríain''' mheic Thaidhg'' (''le'' takes accusative, thus the genitive ''Bríain'' is regularly eclipsed) but with ''slégar'' applied it can also be: * ''le mnáoi '''Bhríain''' mheic Thaidhg'' (with the eclipsis changed into lenition). And ‘bright Brian’s spear’ would regularly be: * ''sleagh '''Bhríain''' ghil'' (''sleagh'' ‘spear’ is a feminine noun, thus it lenites its attribute), but with ''slégar'' applied it also can be: * ''sleagh '''Bríain''' ghil''. ''Slégar'' is applicable both to definite and indefinite phrases, for example: * ''adhaltras '''fhear''' na cruinne'' ‘the adultery of the men of the world’ is an example of ''slégar'' because ''adhaltras'' ‘adultery’ is a masculine noun and thus should not lenite its attribute, * the phrase would regularly be: ''adhaltras '''fear''' na cruinne''. There are situation where ''slégar'' is prevented. One of them is that an eclipsed noun in genitive blocks ''slégar'' in subsequent nouns: * ''ré néimh '''bhfáinne fir''' óir'' is the regular way to say ‘to brightness of a golden man’s ring’ ('''bhfáinne''' ‘of a ring’ is an io-stem masculine noun in genitive, it allows its attribute – ''fir'' ‘a man’s’, in genitive – to stay unlenited<ref>Although ''bhfáinne fhir'' seems to also be allowed, see BST 200.11–30</ref>), * ''ré néimh '''fháinne fhir''' óir'' and ''ré néimh '''fháinne fir''' óir'' are correct with ''slégar'' applied (eclipsis turned lenition on ''bhfáinne'', and also possible ''slégar'' on ''fir''), * but ''re néimh <s>'''bhfáinne fhir'''</s> óir'' is '''incorrect''' (because ''bhfáinne'' is eclipsed, the subsequent ''fir'' must stay unlenited and ''slégar'' cannot be applied to it). Another such case is genitives connected with ''agus'' ‘and’, ''nó'' ‘or’, or ''ná'' ‘nor’: they block ''slégar'' in the sense that they connect two unattributed genitives, they break genitive chain, ie. ''mac fir agus mná'' means ‘a son of a man and of a woman’, none of the genitives is attributing the other one, so ''slégar'' cannot be applied to either (but slégur ''may'' be applied ''before'' the conjunction if the first genitive is attributed, eg. ''mac '''fir óig''' agus mná'' without ''slégar'' and ''mac '''fhir''' óig agus mná'' with ''slégar'' are both correct). It’s worth noting that the operation of ''slégar'', in cases where it causes regularly unexpected lenition, is very reminiscent of Modern Irish ‘functional genitive’ – lenition of definite nominative nouns replacing the genitive form (for example ‘Cáit’s house’ being ''teach '''Cháit''''', or ‘the fisher’s boat’s mast’ being ''crann '''bhád''' an iascaire'') – but note the differences: * unlike in Modern Irish, ''slégar'' does not prevent the genitive form – all the nouns in a chain in Classical Gaelic are in genitive, note the ''adhaltras '''fhear''' na cruinne'' example above with gen. pl. ''fear'' ‘of men’, in Modern Irish it’d be ''adhaltras '''fhir''' na cruinne'', * ''slégar'' affects both definite and indefinite phrases, * ''slégar'' can also undo lenition, changing regularly lenited noun into an unmutated one, and it can change eclipsis into lenition. Scottish Gaelic lenition of indefinite genitives plural might also have developed out of slégar. == Prepositions == === Stationary dative vs accusative of motion === Classical Gaelic keeps the distinction between ''accusative'' and ''dative'' grammatical case used after certain prepositions. Accusative is used to convey the motion (eg. ''i'' + accusative means ‘into’) while dative expresses stationary position (eg. ''i'' + dative means ‘inside’). It’s the same distinction as can be found in German, Latin (with stationary ablative), Slavic languages (with stationary locative). [TODO: list all prepositions taking acc/dat depending on meaning] For example: * ''Cuirfead mo láimh ar fear'' or ''ar fhear'' ‘I will put my hand upon a man’ with accusative (motion), * ''Bíaidh mo lámh ar fior'' ‘my hand will be on a man’ with dative (stationarily placed). But some prepositions take just one of the cases, eg. ''ós'' always takes the dative: * ''Cuirfead mo láimh ós fhior'' ‘I will put my hand above a man’ with dative (even though motion is involved here). There are also compound “prepositions” that take genitive – they are generally phrases with the second element being a noun which itself is either in dative or accusative, and thus they themselves cause either lenition (if the noun-part is in dative) or eclipsis (if the noun-part is in accusative). Some of them change the mutation they cause based on their meaning: * ''tar éis fhir'' or ''ar éis fhir'' ‘after a man’ (lit. ‘on, over a track of a man’) – in the meaning ‘after’ ''éis'' is in dative and causes lenition, * ''tar éis bhfir'' or ''ar éis bhfir'' ‘instead of a man’ (lit. ‘onto, over a track of a man’) – in the meaning ‘instead of’ ''éis'' is in accusative and causes eclipsis. But some of them cause always the same mutation regardless of meaning: * ''d’éis fhir'' can mean both ‘after a man’ and ‘instead of a man’ (''do'' can be used instead of ''ar'' or ''tar'' in both meanings, but it always takes ''éis'' in dative), === With dative === Most prepositions expressing static position take dative, some of them can also take accusative in dynamic meaning (denoting target place of movement) – see [[#Stationary dative vs accusative of motion]] above. * ''a^H'' ‘out of, from’ * ''ag'' ‘at’ * ''ar(^L?)'' ‘on’ * ''do^L'' ‘to, for’ * ''do^L'' ‘from’ * ''fa^L'' ‘under, beneath’ (not clear whether it takes accusative or dative in dynamic meaning)<ref name="fa-um"></ref>{{#tag:ref|See ''ABP''<ref name="ABP" group="gr" />, pp. 238–239: 695 note and 713 note. ''IGT i'' lists ''fáoi'' (that is, 3rd sg. masc. form of ''fa'' ‘under, beneath’) among prepositions taking acc. with the dynamic meaning (the others being ''ann'' and ''air'', ie. ''i'' ‘in(to)’ and ''ar'' ‘on(to)’; also note that 3rd sg. of dynamic ''i'' ‘into’ with acc. is ''inn'', not ''ann''), and does not list ''fa'' among variants of ''um'', but it’s not clear whether the use of ''fa'' in the meaning ‘about’ is proscribed – it seems it is allowed in ''BST''<ref name="BST" group="gr" /> and the only example with verb of motion and accusative there (''cuirfead m’fhalluing fa fhear'') can be understood as ‘around’, variant of ''um, bha, ma'' (‘I will put my cloak around/about a man’ and not ‘beneath a man’). Mac Cárthaigh has no examples of ''fa'' + acc. meaning ‘(going) under’ in poetry.|follow="fa-um"}} * ''go^N'' ‘with’ * ''i^N'' ‘in’ * ''íar^N'', ''ar^N'' ‘after’ * ''ó^L'' ‘from’ * ''ós^L'' ‘above’ (takes dative even in dynamic meaning) === With accusative === These typically take accusative in the singular, but dative in plural (except for ''mar, dar, gan'' which take acc. pl. too): * ''ar(^L?)'' ‘onto’ * ''i^N'' ‘into’ * ''idir, eidir'' ‘between’ * (''fa^L'' ‘under’?<ref name="fa-um" />) * ''gan^L'' ‘without’ – takes accusative also in plural * ''go^H'' ‘to’ * ''le^H, lé^H'' ‘with’ * ''re^H, ré^H'' ‘towards, against’ * ''re^N'' ‘before’<ref>note that ''re^N'' took dative in Old Irish, it switched to accusative during Middle Irish times; also note that ''re^N'' causes eclipsis, eg. ''re bhfear'' ‘before a man’, while Modern Irish ''roimh'' and Scottish Gaelic ''ro'' both cause lenition</ref> * ''tar'' ‘across’ * ''tre^L'' ‘through’ * ''um^L, bha^L, ma^L'' (''fa^L''?<ref name="fa-um" />) ‘about’ === With genitive === Those prepositions are actually compounds of a preposition and a noun. The complement of those compound prepositions is put in genitive (because technically it is attributing another noun – the one being the second part of the preposition), and it will be either lenited or eclipsed – depending whether the second part of the preposition itself is in dative or accusative. For example ''i n-aghaidh'' meaning ‘against’ eclipse the following noun, because it means literally ‘in(to) the face of…’ and ''aghaidh'' ‘face’ is in accusative, eg. ''i n-aghaidh bhfear'' ‘against men’ and ''i n-aghaidh bhfir'' ‘against a man’, but in the meaning ‘in front of’ (as a stationary location) it lenites: ''i n-aghaidh fhir'' ‘in front of a man’ (eg. sitting at a table). === Personal forms === === Forms with possessive pronouns === === Forms with the article === * ''a^H'' ‘out of’: ''as an, as na'' + dative * ''ag'' ‘at’: ''ag an, gan, gun, agan, agon'' + dative (note the difference between ''gan fhior'' ‘at the man’, ''gan fhear'' ‘without a man’, ''gan tshúil'' ‘at the eye’ and ''gan shúil'' ‘without an eye’)<ref name="gan-s"></ref>{{#tag:ref|See ''BST''<ref name="BST" group="gr" /> 213.31, p. 22.|follow=gan-s}} * ''ar'' ‘on’: ''ar an, ar na'' + dative or accusative * ''do'' ‘to’: ''don, dona'' + dative * ''do'' ‘from’: ''don, dona'' + dative * ''fa'' ‘under, beneath’: ''fan'' + dative (or accusative?<ref name="fa-um" />) * ''go^H'' ‘until, to’: ''gus an'' + accusative (''gus an bhfear''), anomalously just ''gus'' (''gus bhfear''), ''gus na'' + dative plural * ''go^N'' ‘with’: ''gus an'' + dative * ''i^N'' ‘in’: sg. ''san'' (''sa''), ''is in'' + dative or accusative, pl. ''sna, is na'' + dative * ''do-chum'' ‘to’ – generally not accepted in dán díreach, poets used ''go, gus an'' instead – even though it is an old compound preposition common in speech * ''le^H'' ‘with’: ''leis an, leis na'' (note that it’s always ''leis'' before the article, even though it can be ''lais'' in conjugated 3rd. sg. form and in the meaning ‘also’) * ''re^H'' ‘towards, against’: ''ris an'' + accusative, ''ris na'' + dative plural * ''re^N'' ‘before’: ''rés an, rías an'' + accusative, ''rés na, rías na'' + dative plural * ''um^L, bha^L, ma^L'' (''fa^L'') ‘about’: ''uman, bhan, man'' (''fan'') == Substantive verb: ''a-tú'' == The table below lists forms of the substantive verb ''bí'' ‘be’ (imperative), ''a-tú'' ‘I am’ (1st sg.) as they seem to have been accepted in the bardic standard.<ref name="substantive-forms"></ref>{{#tag:ref|The list is based mostly on ''IGT III''<ref name="IGT" group="gr" /> – the tract on irregular verbs, but also on Léamh.org (the [https://xn--lamh-bpa.org/grammar/substantive-verb-a-ta/ tables in the grammar sections] as well as forms listed by McKenna in [https://xn--lamh-bpa.org/glossary/a-tu/ ''Aithdioghluim Dána''<ref name="AiD" group="ed" /> in the vocab section]), later forms listed in [https://dil.ie/4927 eDIL], conjugation of the substantive verb from NLI MS G 3, f. 73R2-73v15⁹⁹ (listed in the article ''Aspects of bardic poetry in the thirteenth century''<ref name="13th-c" group="gr" />), and also consulted with the table in [https://archive.org/details/tribiorghaoitheb00keat/page/470/mode/2up ''Trí Bior-ghaoithe an Bháis'']<ref name="Trí-Bior" group="ed" />|follow=substantive-forms}} I assume that all non-impersonal forms used with the preverb ''do-'' are lenited, as seems to be the case (but is it always true in the earliest poems?). {| class="wikitable" !| !| 1. sg. !| 2. sg. !| 3. sg. !| 1. pl. !| 2. pl. !| 3. pl. !| impersonal !| relative |- !| present indep. | ''a-tú'' | ''a-táoi'' | ''a-tá'' | ''a-tám'', ''a-támáoid'' | ''a-tátháoi'' | ''a-táid'' | ''a-táthar'' | |- !| present dependent | ''-fuilim'', ''-foilim'' | ''-fuile'', ''-foile'' | ''-fuil'', ''-foil'' | ''-fuilmíd'', ''-fuileam'', <br /> ''-foilmíd'', ''-foileam'' | ''-fuiltí'', ''-foiltí'' | ''-fuilead'', ''-fuilid'', <br /> ''-foilead'', ''-foilid'' | ''-fuiltear'', ''-foiltear'' | |- !| present habitual | ''bím'' | ''bí'' | ''bídh'', ''-bí'', ''-bíonn'' | ''bímíd'', ''-bíom'' | ''bíth(e?)'' | ''bíd'', ''-bíad'' | ''bíthear'', (''-bíothar''?) | ''bhíos'' |- !| past indep. | ''do bhá'', ''do bhádhas'' | ''do bhádhais'' | ''do bhí'', ''do bháoi'' | ''do bhámar'', ''do bhámair'' | ''do bhábhair'' | ''do bhádar'' | ''do bás'' | |- !| past dependent | ''-rabha'', ''-rabhadhas'' | ''-rabhadhais'' | ''-raibhe'', ''-rabha'' | ''-rabhamar'' | ''-rabhabhair'' | ''-rabhadar'' | ''-rabhas'' | |- !| past habitual | ''do bhínn'' | ''do bhíthe'', (''do bhítheá''?) | ''do bhíodh'', ''do bhíoth'' | ''do bhímís'' | ''do bhíodh sibh'', (''do bhíthí''?) | ''do bhídís'' | (''do bítheá''?) | |- !| future | ''bíad'', ''-biu'', ''-biú'' | ''bía'' | ''bíaidh'', ''-bía'' | ''beimíd'', ''-bíam'' | (''beithi''? ''beidh''?) | ''beid'', ''-bíad'' | (''beithear''?) | ''bhías'' (''bhés''?) |- !| conditional | ''do bheinn'', ''-beinn'' | ''do bheitheá'' | ''do bhíadh'', ''do bhíath'' | ''do bheimís'', ''do bheamáois'' | ''do bhíadh sibh'' | ''do bheidís'' | (''do beithe''?) | |- !| present subj. | ''bear'', ''rabhar'' | ''beis'' (''béis''?), ''rabhais'' | ''bé'', (''beith''?), ''rabh'', ''raibh'' | ''beam'', ''rabham'' | ''beithi'', ''rabhtháoi'' | ''bead'', (''beid''?), ''rabhad'' | ''beithear'', (''rabhthar''?) | ''bheas'' |- !| past subj. | ''do bheinn'', ''do rabhainn'' | ''do bheitheá'', (''do bheithe''?) | ''do bheith'', ''do bheath'', <br /> ''do bheadh'', ''do rabhadh'' | ''do bheimís'', ''do bheamáois'', <br /> ''do rabhmáois'' | ''do bheith sibh'' | ''do bheidís'', ''do rabhdáois'' | (''do beithe''?, ''do rabhtha''?) | |- !| imperative | ''bíor'', ''bím'' | ''bí'' | ''bíodh'', ''bíoth'' | ''bíom'' | ''bídh'', ''bíthe'' | ''bíod'' | (''bítear''?) | |} The present tense dependent forms in ''-fuil, -foil'' are generally used after dependent particles: ''an bhfuil…?'' ‘is…?’, ''nach fuil…?'' ‘is … not …?’, ''go bhfuil…'' ‘that … is …’, etc. But in some contexts forms ''-tú, -táoi, -tá, -tám ⁊ -támáoid'', ''-tátháoi'', ''-táid'' ⁊ ''-tád'', are often used: * often after ''mar, mur'': ''mar tá…'' ‘as there is…’, * after ''má'': ''má tá san tshíodh an tshleagh ghorm…''<ref>read: ''an tshleagh '''g'''orm'' because of delenition</ref> ‘If the blue spear … be in the mound’, * after preposition + relative ''a^N'': ''an t-ionadh a ttú'' ‘the place in which I am’, ''an t-athair ó ttú'' ‘the father from whom I am’, ''an t-adhbhar fa (a) ttú, an tí fa ttám'' ‘the matter about which I am (talking), the one about whom we’re (talking)’, * after ''gá^N'' ‘where’: ''gá ttú, gá dú, gá ttám, gá dám (ris)'' ‘where am I, are we (with it)?’, often ‘in short, finally, no need to elaborate’ (summarizing speech) – in this phrase the ''-ttú, -dú, -ttám, -dám'', etc. forms can alliterate either with ''t'' or with ''d'' (and are often spelt with ''d'').<ref name="-dú"></ref>{{#tag:ref|While after preposition + ''a^N'' only alliteration with ''t'' is allowed, see ''BST''<ref name="BST" group="gr" /> 211 25 (p. 20, and note on pp. 148–149), ''IGT iii (Verbs)''<ref name="IGT" group="gr" /> suggests ''-ttú'' in regular prepositional relative can also alliterate with ''d'', but version from ms. C forbids it (''An tionadh a dtu tinne amain duaim ris'', ie. “''An t-ionadh a ttú'': ''tinne'' amháin (cóir) d’úaim ris” ‘''An t-ionadh a ttú'': only ''T'' is correct to alliterate with it’)|follow="-dú"}} == Copula == === Forms === The analytical forms (ie. 3rd sg. forms used with nouns and pronouns) of the copula are as follows<ref name="cop-forms"></ref>{{#tag:ref|See ''SnaG''<ref name="SnaG" group="gr" /> p. 417, also ''ABP''<ref name="ABP" group="gr" /> p. 336, various places in ''BST''<ref name="BST" group="gr" />|follow=cop-forms}}: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tense / Mood ! Affirmative ! Interrogative ! Negative ! Negative interrogative ! Relative ! Negative relative ! other forms<br /> |- ! present | ''is'' (''as'') | ''an'' | ''ní''^H, ''nocha'' (''nochan'' + vowel) | ''nach'' | ''as''^L (''is''^L) | ''nach'' | ''go'' ‘that, so that’ + cop.: ''gur(b)'', ''gurab'', ''gonadh''(?)<br />''gé'' ‘although’ + cop.: ''giodh'', ''gér(b)''<br />''má'' ‘if’ + cop.: ''más''^L<br />''muna'' ‘if not’ + cop.: ''muna(b)'' |- ! past | ''do ba''^L, ''roba''^L (''dob’''^L, ''rob’''^L + vowel), <br /> ''do badh'', ''do budh'', ''fa''^H | ''nar''^L, ''nár''^L (''narbh''^L, ''nárbh''^L + vowel?)<ref name="cop-nar"></ref>{{#tag:ref|The only (prose, not ''dán díreach'') example I found is ''dá marbhtha sagart ⁊ tú a n-ainbhfios '''’nar''' shagurt é'' ‘if you were to kill a priest unaware whether he was a priest’ in ''Scáthán Shacramuinte na hAithridhe'' lines 2873–2874, p. 88 (also cited in [https://xn--lamh-bpa.org/glossary/is/ léamh.org glossary] as “''’nar<an ar'', 2874”) but the tracts are pretty clear that the particle ''an'' changes to ''nar, nár'' with verbs requiring ''gur'' instead of ''go'', cf. ''IGT i, ABP''<ref name="ABP" group="gr" /> 275–278, §16 and ''BST''<ref name="BST" group="gr" /> 211.13–14 (both with the example ''nar mharbhus tú?'' ‘did I kill you?’; Mac Cárthaigh, p. 205, also notes ''Máire munbadh í Eamhear / '''nár geinedh''' no an ngeinfeadhear / ochta mar úan na mara / dá snúadh corcra as cosmhala'' ‘Máire – if she was not Eimhear – '''has there been born''' or will there be – (breasts like the foam of the sea) – two purple complexions more alike?’ in dán díreach) so this likely also is true for the copula.|follow=cop-nar}} | ''níor''^L (''níorbh''^L, ''níor bh’''^L + vowel), ''ní ba'', ''ní badh'', <br /> ''nochar''^L (''nocharbh''^L, ''nochar bh’''^L + vowel) | | ''dob’''^L, ''fa''^H, ''badh''^L, ''budh''^L | ''nár'' (''nárbh'', ''nár bh’'' + vowel) | ''gé'' + cop.: ''gér(bh)''^L<br />(''muna'' + cop.: ''munar(bh)''^L?) |- ! future | ''budh'' (''badh'') | | ''ní budh'', ''níba''^H | | ''bhus'' | | |- ! conditional | ''budh'', ''do budh'', ''robudh'' | ''nar''^L, ''nár''^L (''narbh''^L, ''nárbh''^L + vowel?)<ref name="cop-nar" /> | ''ní budh'' | | | | |- ! present subjunctive | ''rob'' | | ''nára'' (''nárab'' + vowel) | | ''bhus'' | | ''go'' + cop.: ''gura(b)'', ''go mba''^H<br />''gé'' + cop.: ''giodh''<br />''má'' + cop: ''madh'' |- ! past subjunctive | ''budh'' | | ''nába(dh)'' | | | | ''go'' + cop.: ''gomadh''<br />''gé'' + cop.: ''gémadh''<br />''muna'' + cop.: ''munbadh'' |} Note that in the past tense the shorter forms ''do ba'', ''níor bh’'', etc. cause lenition but the ''badh, ní badh'' forms don’t (but they still lenite in relative clauses). The present tense relative ''as'' also lenites. The present form with ''go'' – ''gonadh'' – continues Old Irish ''conid'', but ''gur(a)(b)'' is more common. The latter form continues Old/Middle Irish ''corop'' which first was a variant of pres. subj. form, later reinterpreted as future, and later yet as present.<ref name="gurab">Cecile O’Rahilly (1966), ''Gurab, present indicative of the copula'' in ''Celtica'' vol. 7, pp. 33–37.</ref> Since the copula was always unstressed, the vowels were variously spelt. The present indicative historically was ''is'' but was often written as ''as'', on the other hand the relative form (historically ''as'') could be written as ''is'', both were pronounced /əs/ by the classical times. Similarly the past and future forms were variously written as ''budh'' or ''badh''. ==== Sealbhadh (synthetic conjugated forms) ==== The word ''sealbhadh'' is typically used for ''infix pronouns'' in classical bardic tracts, but it is also applied to the synthetic forms of the copula – it seems they were regarded as containing the infix pronouns (even if actually continued the old synthetic forms). The 3rd sg. masc. form ''a^N'' is the infix pronoun (the copula didn’t distinguish gender originally, ''is'' was the OIr. 3rd sg. form). The forms used in dán díreach are as follows:<ref name="copula-sealbhadh"></ref>{{#tag:ref|As listed in ''BST''<ref name="BST" group="gr" />, ''Appendix I: Sealbhadh'', pp. 252–253.|follow=copula-sealbhadh}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! ! Singular ! Plural |- ! 1st | ''am'' | ''ar^N'' |- ! 2nd | ''ad'' (''at'' + vowel) | ''abhar^N'' |- ! 3rd | ''a^N'' (''as'') (masc.)<br />''as'' (fem.)<br /> | ''ad'' (+ consonant or vowel) |} Those can be also prefixed with the 3rd sg. form ''is, as'', eg. ''asam, isam'' for ‘I am’, ''asat'' for ‘you are’, etc. Sometimes ''as'' was considered the ''sealbhadh'' of 3rd sg. masc. copula too.<ref name="as-sealbadh">Interpreted as ''as'' + ''a^N'' with missing eclipsis?</ref> If an adjective is the predicate, all the forms take singular adjective, except for 3rd pl. ''ad'' ‘they are’ which takes the plural form. Some examples, note that the emphatic suffix ''-sa, -se,'' ⁊c. is attached to the predicate, and the full unlenited pronoun forms (''sé, sí'') are used after conjugated copula: * ''fear meallta Taidhg Í Uiginn mé'' = '''''am''' fear meallta Taidhg Í Uiginn'' ‘I am a man deceiving/beguiling Tadhg Ó hU.’ * ''’s eisean meise'' = '''''am''' seiseansa'' ‘I am him’ * ''nar bean meise'' = '''''narbam''' beansa'' (? ‘am I a woman?’ or ‘that I am not a woman?’) * ''gérb fear mé'' = '''''géram''' fear'' ‘though I am a man’ * ''Áodh tú'' = '''''at''' Áodh'' ‘you are Aodh’ * ''gérb é thú'' = '''''gérad''' sé'' ‘though you are him’ * ''Dé Domhnaigh eisean'' = '''''a nD'''éisean Domhnaigh'' ‘it is Sunday’ * ''gérb é é'' = '''''géra''' sé'' ‘though he is him’ * ''is usa na fir do mhealladh ioná…'' = '''''as''' usa na fir do mhealladh ioná…'' ‘it is easier to deceive the men than…’ (''as'' understood as the 3rd sg. form, standing for the whole ''na fir do mhealladh'' phrase) * ''Mairt isi'' = '''''as''' Mairtsi'' ‘it is Tuesday’ * ''d’fhearaibh sinn'' = '''''ar nd’'''fhearaibh'' ‘we are from folks’ * ''Áodh íad'' = '''''ad''' Áodh'' ‘they are Aodh’ * ''is usa na fir do mhealladh ioná…'' = '''''asad''' usa na fir do mhealladh ioná…'' ‘the men are easier to deceive than…’ === Syntax === ==== Predicative adjectives ==== ==== Definite subject, indefinite predicative ==== ⟨{{smallcaps|copula}}⟩ ⟨{{smallcaps|predicative}}⟩ ⟨{{smallcaps|subject}}⟩: * ''is rí an fear'' ‘the man is a king’ * ''is rí maith an fear'' ‘the man is a good king’ with adjectives more common: * ''is maith an rí an fear'' ‘the man is a good king, the king that the man is, is good’ * ''is maith na fir an slúagh'' or ''is maithe na fir íad an slúagh'' ‘the host is good men’ vs ''is maith an slúagh é na fir'' ‘the men are a good host’ ==== Both subject and predicative definite ==== When the predicate is definite, it is separated from the copular verb with a pronoun agreeing with the predicate.<ref name="oir-copula">This usage existed already in Old Irish (where the subject of the copula was never expressed with a pronoun), for example in Old Irish ‘he is a man’ would be expressed as ''is fer'' (with the subject ‘he’ being included in the 3rd. sg. copula ''is'' ‘he/she/it is’), and ‘he is ''the'' man’ would be ''is hé in fer'' – note that ''hé'' ‘he’ here '''isn’t''' the subject, but rather a sub-predicate, part of the whole phrase ''hé in fer'' ‘the man’ (in Middle Irish the sentence could be ''is hé in fer hé'', just like in Modern Irish ''is é an fear é'' – with the first pronoun being a part of the predicative, the second – the subject). This is more clearly visible in an example from Würzburg glosses: ''Críst didiu, is sí in chathir'' ‘Christ, then, he is the city’ with the feminine pronoun ''sí'' ‘she’ agreeing with feminine ''in chathir'' ‘the city’, thus literally the sentence is to be understood ‘Christ, then, he-is '''her''' – the city’ with ‘he is’ being represented by ''is'' itself. In Middle Irish, when separate subject pronouns started appearing, this could have been also expressed as ''*Críst didiu, is sí in chathir '''hé''''' with ''hé'' being the subject ‘he’ referring back to ‘Christ’. In earliest Old Irish this sub-predicate wasn’t required, so ''*Críst didiu, is in chathir'' hypothetically would also be possible with the same meaning.</ref><ref name="identification" group="gr"/> ⟨{{smallcaps|copula}}⟩ ''é/í/íad'' ⟨{{smallcaps|predicative}}⟩ ⟨{{smallcaps|subject}}⟩: * ''mo theanga, is é m’arm-sa í'' ‘my tongue, it is my weapon’ (ie. it is the poet’s means to defend himself and by which he can do harm) – note that the first pronoun agrees with the predicate: masculine ''é'' and masculine ''arm'', while the subject is feminine ''í'' ‘she’ standing for the feminine ''mo theanga'' ‘my tongue’, * ''is é an rí Conn'' ‘Conn is the king’, * ''is íad fir an bhaile an slúagh táinig…'' ‘the host that came was the men of the town…’, * ''giodh '''é''' críoch gach oighre '''ég''''' ‘although the end of every heir is death’ – the masculine subpredicate ''é'' agrees with masc. ''ég'' ‘death’, and not with the feminine subject ''críoch gach oighre'' ‘the end of every heir’. * ''is '''í''' an tiobra gainmheach geal / '''Inis''' Fó[dh?]la na bhfinntreabh'' ‘the clear sandy well is the island of Ireland of the fair families’ (''tiobra'' ‘well’ masculine according to McManus). If the predicate is a singular collective noun, representing multiple people, the pronoun may be plural ''íad'': * ''is í'' (or ''íad'') ''an chlíar an chlíar táinig…'' ‘the group of poets (or clergy) that came was the group of poets/clergy…’ (''í'' or ''íad'' can be used, because plural pronoun can be used for collective nouns). When the subject is understood as a pronoun agreeing in gender with the predicate, it is often omitted (just like subject pronoun is often not expressed with other verbs, and like it wasn’t in Old Irish): * ''más é tal mo Thighearna'' ‘if it be my Lord’s will’ – no subject is explicitly expressed, ''é'' is part of the predicate. But it appears occasionally: * ''is é an seanadh é más fhíor'' ‘it is the old tradition if it be true’ – the first ''é'' is part of the predicative (''é an seanadh'' ‘the old tradition’), the second ''é'' is the subject ‘it’, and the subject is not repeated for the second copula ''más fhíor'' ‘if it be true’. === Demonstratives: ''ag so, ag sin, ag súd'' === While ''(é) seo'', ''(é) sin'', etc. could be used just like definite nouns in the copular sentences, there is an alternative popular construction with copular meaning (ie. ‘this is…, that is…’) in the classical language, but the ‘demonstratives’ may also carry an adverbial meaning (‘here is…, there is…’, pointing to a place or a general circumstance). It is formed by ''ag'' + the demonstrative + the noun in either nominative or accusative (sic!) – and when accusative is used, then the [[#Réim connsaine|''réim connsaine'']] applies (ie. it is lenited). For example: * ''ag sin mhnáoi ngil'' or ''ag sin bean gheal'' ‘that is a bright woman’ or ‘there is a bright woman’, * '''''ag so an teangaidh''' nach tearc labhra / beannaigh, a shearc m’anma, í'' ‘behold this tongue [of mine] so excessive of speech ''(lit.'' whose speech is not meagre'')'', bless it, o love of my soul’,<ref>Verses and translation from McKenna’s ''Aithdioghluim Dána'', poem 70, ''Déana mo theagosg, a Thríonóid''.</ref> * ''ag so dearbhadh air ó Mhac an Bhaird'' ‘here is confirmation of it from Mac an Bhaird’, * ''Is í an bhreaghdhacht, gi bé i mbeath, / gaisgeadh is úaill is eineach; / '''ag sin tríar''' nár thrí lochta / do bhí i mBrían na breaghdhochta.'' ‘This Breagha-quality means in its possessor gallantry, pride, and hospitality; '''these were the three things''' – no defects surely! ''(lit.'' ‘these are [the] three things that were not three faults’'')'' – to be seen in Brian of the Breagha-nature’.<ref>Quatrain and translation taken from McKenna’s edition of [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30099598 ''Tánag d’Fhanaid an einigh''].</ref> This is the construction which later gave rise to modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic copula-less forms like {{color|green|seo madra}} and {{color|#00A0DA|seo cù}} ‘this is a dog’ or Munster and Connacht {{color|green|seo é an fear}} and Scottish {{color|#00A0DA|seo am fear}} ‘this is the man’. Nominative is much more common than accusative (only a few metrically fixed examples of accusative in bardic poetry) in this construction – but the accusative is older. It is derived from hypothetical Old Irish ''*aicc síu, *aicc sin'' ‘see here, see there’ with the (unattested) imperative ''*aicc'' ‘see’ of the verb ''ad·cí'', the direct ancestor of classical ''faic'' ‘see’ – the predicate expressed after it being originally the direct object of the verb, hence the accusative and ''réim connsaine''.<ref>See R. A. Breatnach (1976), ''An Gléas Teaspáinteach'' in ''Éigse'', vol. XVI, 3.</ref> In a similar manner – with either nominative or accusative – were used the phrases ''mo-chean'' ‘hail, fortunate, happy (is)’, ''mairg'' ‘woe to’, and ''mo-ghénar'' ‘happy, fortunate (is)’: * with accusative: ''Gá fhaisgin an fheadh do bháoi, / '''mo-chean mhnáoi''''' ‘'''Lucky the woman''' who was seeing him as long as she was’, * with nominative: ''Mairg file'' ‘woe to the poet’. == Relative clauses == === Simple relative clauses === The antecedent is the subject or the object or the relative clause, or it is an adverb of the relative clause. Relative clauses are generally formed by putting the verb in relative form, if possible – for regular verbs this means the ''-s'' ending in present and future tenses, and leniting it. Compound verbs use their independent form (the preverb is not lenited): * ''don chloinn '''charfas''' sibh'' ‘to the children '''who’ll love''' you’<ref>From Bergin’s edition of ''A Gaelic Miscellany'', ie. ''A leabhráin ainmnighthear d’Aodh''; since ''sibh'' is the direct object here perhaps it should be emended to ''ibh''</ref> * ''an fear '''mheallas''' gile a ghrúaidhe'' ‘the man '''whom''' the brightness of his cheek '''beguiles'''’(?) (cited by McKenna in ''BST'', from ''Poetry of Pilib Bocht'', 22 17) * ''madh ionann breath '''bheireas siad''''' ‘if the judgement '''they deliver''' is the same’(?) * ''an t-aondía mór-chumhachtach sin '''a-tá''', agas '''do bhí''' agas '''bhías''' bithbheó do ghnáth'' ‘that single all-powerful God '''who is''', and '''who was''', and '''who will be''' forever and continually’<ref>Carswell’s ''Foirm na n-Uirrnuidheadh''</ref> * ''an fear '''do-ní''' an réd'' ‘the man '''who does''' the thing’ * ''an triar '''táinig''''' ‘the three '''who came'''’ * ''an teagasg '''tug mé''''' ‘the teaching '''I gave'''’ If the subject is 3rd person plural and not the antecedent, the plural form is often used: * ''mo mhac sáor do ghonsad Goill'' ‘my noble son whom the Foreigners slew’ (here with the s-preterite form 'gonsad' rather than perfect ''do ghonadar'') Passive verb forms often are lenited just like active verbs, but sometimes they’re left unlenited: * ''leis an ngealladh gealltar lais'' ‘by the pledge that is given by him’ (should be emended to ''ghealltar''?) ==== With copula ==== The relative forms of the copula are used if the antecedent is the subject, the present relative copula lenites its predicate: * ''Síoth Aodha bhus ainm don tigh'' ‘the house shall be called Síoth Aodha (=Aodh’s Mound)’ (lit. ‘it’s Síoth Aodha that will be the house’s name’) === Object of verbal noun === If the antecedent is an object of a verbal noun clause, like in ''fédaim an réad do dhénamh'' ‘I can do the thing’, or in the progressive construction, eg. ''a-tú ag tógbháil tighe'' ‘I am building a house’, then the verbal noun appears after ''do'':<ref> A bit of speculation: This probably developed in phases, first with sentences like ''is maith liom (an réd do dhénamh)'' ‘I like to do the thing’ reanalyzed as ''*is (maith liom do dhénamh) an réd'' (not an actual attested word order), leading to ''réd as mhaith liom do dhénamh'' ‘the thing I like to do’. This then to ''réd fhédaim do dhénamh'' ‘the thing I can do’, which then later gave the model for ''teagh a-tú do thógbháil'' ‘the house that I am building’.</ref> * ''an réad fhédaim do dhénamh'' ‘the thing which I can do’ * ''fagha nar fhéd d’iongabháil'' ‘the dart/javelin that [he] could not avoid / guard against’ * ''teagh a-tú do thógbháil'' ‘the house that I am building’ * ''is tú an ógh a-tú do thogha'' ‘thou art the virgin I am choosing’ * ''a dhuine a-táim do theagasg'' ‘o man whom I am teaching’ (from Pilib Bocht, should be emended to ''a-tú''?) === Prepositional relative clauses === In both positive and negative clauses the relative pronoun ''aᴺ'' is used (''arᴸ'' before regular verbs in past tense), the verb in its dependent form: * ''an tslat fhíorógh le mbía ar mbádh'' ‘the truly virginal branch whom we shall love’ (''le mbía ar mbádh'' ‘with whom will be our love’ = ‘who will have our love’) * ''a chú ar a ttád teora búadh'' ‘o hound of three excellences’ (lit. ‘on whom there are three…’) * ''ná céil (…) ar Sheanghallaibh (…) lér cheanglamair'' ‘don’t hide (…) from Old English (Sean-Ghaill) with whom we united’ * ''an t-arm leis ar ghonas tú'' ‘the weapon with which I wounded you’ (''leis ar'' is an alternative form of ''lér'') * ''an port asa ttéighise'' ‘the place from which you go’ This (like in Sc. Gaelic) is also possible in the negative: * ''lámh ar nach luigh sochaidhe'' ‘(the) hand upon which a host of soldiers did not press/trouble’ === Generalizing relative clauses === Generalizing relative clauses with ''aᴺ'' ‘all that’ exist, it can be preceeded by a preposition (this works like in Modern Irish, it’s equivalent to Scottish Gaelic {{color|#00A0DA|''na''}} + relative form): * '''''a bhfuil leibh''', labhair iar soin'' ‘'''all that you have''', say it after that’ * ''gébhaidh '''ar ghabh''' a shinsear'' ‘he will take '''what''' his ancestor '''held'''’ (or: ‘all that his ancestor…’) [TODO: examples] The generalizing relative pronoun can also combine with a preposition, very common with ''do'' ‘from, of’: * ''gach ní '''dá''' mbeanfadh rinn'' ‘every thing '''of all those''' that would concern us’<ref>From the letter of Rósa Ní Dhochartaigh, see [https://archive.org/details/contemporaryhistv1p2gilb/page/n151/mode/1up the scan of the manuscript] and [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ggzP0v1V_0sCUFwn4DsSwwdlrQgCwQNd/view?usp=sharing transcription with translation and analysis]</ref> === Whose-relative clauses === ==== Without overt possessive ==== Unlike in Modern Irish or Scottish Gaelic, ''whose''-relatives – where the antecedent is in the genitive case relation with something in the relative clause, there’s no possessive pronoun present. The noun attributed by the genitive is often, but not always, lenited. * ''crann as mhaith toradh'' ‘the tree whose fruit is good’ – ''maith'' lenited due to relative copula, note there is no possessive (no ''a thoradh'' ‘its fruit’ or anything like that; nothing refers back to ‘tree’) * ''fear as fhearr clú'' ‘the man whose fame is highest’ The same happens if the antecedent attributes the direct object of a verb: * ''crann do bhúaileas chráoibh'' ‘the tree whose branch I struck’ – ''chráoibh'' in the accusative of ''cráobh'' which belongs to the ‘tree’ (but no ''a chráoibh'' ‘its branch’) * ''fear mheallaim mhnáoi'' ‘the man whose wife I deceive’ * ''bean fhéghaim fhionnghúalainn'' ‘the lady whose white shoulder I see’ (''fhéghaim'' is a variant form of ''fhéchaim'') And the same is true even if the noun possessed is governed by a preposition – a regular prepositional relative clause is used and the thing attributed by genitive just tucked later: * ''crann '''ar a''' raibhe an t-én '''chráoibh''''' ‘the tree '''on whose branch''' the bird was’ (''chráoibh'' lenited and in dative belongs to the ''crann'' ‘tree’ which is in the genitive relation to it) * ''fear ó ttánag mhnáoi'' ‘the man from whose wife I came’ * ''bean ór imthigheas dá fhear'' ‘the woman from whose two husbands I escaped’ This works with compound prepositions requiring genitive: * ''an fáidh ar a ttámaid tí'' ‘the seer of whom we speak’ (''a-tú ar a thí'' means ‘I am alluding to him’, lit. ‘I am on his track’) ==== With overt possessive in ''isa, asa'' ==== There is another type which uses ''isa'', ''asa'' as the relative particle, and it does contain the possessive: * ''crann isa chráobh do bhúaileas'' ‘the tree whose branch I struck’ * ''bean isa bas do bhúail an leanbh'' ‘the woman whose hand struck the child’ * ''fear isa bhean mheallaim'' ‘the man whose wife I deceive’ This type doesn’t seem to work with a combination of prepositional clause and genitive relation (like in ‘the tree '''on whose''' branch…’). ==== Rephrasing without ‘whose’ ==== In poetry, instead of actual ‘whose’-relative clauses one often finds a type rephrasing them with prepositional ones with a possessive instead (instead of saying ‘the tree on whose branch…’, saying ‘the tree which has its branch on which…’): * ''croidhe te gá marann a mhian'' ‘a hot heart with which its passion remains’ instead of ‘whose passion lives on’ this type probably ultimately led to Irish indirect relative clause with possessive pronoun. == Rules of delenition == Classical Gaelic kept the Old Irish rules of delenition – when two homorganic (ie. produced in the same part of mouth) consonants came together, at least some of them resisted lenition even if that was required by the grammar. The rules were different word-internally (typically in compound words where the second element would normally be lenited) and across word boundaries (eg. for adjectives following nouns in dative or a feminine nominative). This section is based almost entirely on ''The Art of Bardic Poetry''<ref name="ABP" group="gr" />. === Word internal === ==== Labials ==== * ''bh'' + ''b(h)'' → ''b'' * ''b(h)'' + ''m(h)'' → ''m'' (''cráobh'' + ''mín'' = ''cráoimín''; ''ibhmid'' ‘we drink’ read as if ''\*imid'') * ''b'' + ''m(h)'' → ''bm'' (''cab'' + ''mín'' = ''caibmín'') * ''b(h)'' + ''p'' → ''p'' (''garbh'' + ''peann'' → ''gairpeann'') * ''m(h)'' + ''b(h)'' → ''m'' (''cam'' + ''bél'' → ''caimél'' – note difference with modern surname ''Caimbéal'') * ''m(h)'' + ''m(h)'' → ''m'' (''cáomh'' + ''mín'' → ''cáoimín'') * ''m'' + ''p(h)'' → ''mp'' (''gorm'' + ''port'' → ''gormport'', ''lom'' + ''peann'' → ''loimpeann'') That is: sequences ''bhmh'' and ''mhbh'' change to ''m'', but ''bmh'' to ''bm''. * ''fh'' is '''not''' delenited by ''m'' or ''b'' (''froimfhearthuin'' rhymes with ''poinnfhearfaidh''; ''dob fhearr'', ''gho'''bfh'''uar'' consonants with ''fea'''d'''án'' and ''ea'''g'''án'') * ''f'' + ''m(h)/b(h)/p(h)'' → probably ''fm/fb/fp'' (but Mac Cárthaigh has no good examples; Ó hEódhasa in his ''RHG'' seems to claim in word boundary this can happen and delenition takes place) * ''p'' + ''b(h)'' → ''p'' (''ceap'' + ''beag'' → ''ceipeag'') * when lenited, sometimes written ''f'' (''glas'' + ''peann'' → ''glaispheann'' and ''lus'' + ''port'' → ''lusfort'') ==== Dentals (coronals) ==== * ''d(h)'' + ''d(h)'' → ''d'' (''bileadh'' + ''dream'' → ''bileidream'', ''fichead'' + ''dubh'' → ''ficheadubh''; ''Díarmaddha'' rhymes with ''Díarmada''), * ''d(h)'' + ''s'' → ''ts'' (''an fhleadh-sa'' rhymes with ''an leath-sa'' and ''an cead-sa'' as if all ending in ''-eatsa'') * ''d(h)'' + ''t(h)'' → ''t'' (''bhfleadhtunna'' rhymes with ''eaturra'') * ''l(l)'' + ''d'' → ''ll'' (after short/middle vowel, ''gal'' or ''Gall'' + ''dlúith'' → ''gallúith''); → ''l'' (after long, ''gáol'' + ''dlúith'' → ''gáolúith'') * ''l(l)'' + ''-dha'' → either ''lda'' or ''la'' (after long vowel); either middle vowel + ''l(l)da'' or short vowel + ''lla'' (after non-long vowel; , ''sáoghalda'' being pronounced either ''sáoghalda'' or ''sáoghalla'', but it affects how the vowel rhymes) * ''l'' + ''th'' → ''lt'' – note this is in direct opposition to Munster -lth- * ''n(n)'' + ''d'' → ''nn'' (after short/middle, ''ceann'' + ''dearg'' → ''ceinnearg''); → ''n'' (after long, ''cían'' + ''dearg'' → ''cíainearg'') * ''n(n)'' + ''-dha'' – either ''nda'' or ''na'' (with the same vowel length shenanigans as ''lda'', ''connda'' being either middle-length ''connda'' or short-length ''conna'') * ''n'' + ''th'' → ''nt'' * ''t(h)'' + ''d(h)'' → ''t'' (''slat'' + ''dearg'' → ''slaitearg'', ''ráth'' + ''dlúith'' + ''tiogh'' → ''rátlúitiogh'') * ''th'' + ''s'' → ''ts'' (''leath-sa'' rhyming with ''cead-sa'', as if ''leat-sa''; also ''cloch'' and ''sgoth'' rhyme but ''an chloch-sa'' and ''an sgoth-sa'' do not because the latter is pronounced as if ''sgot-sa'') * ''s'' + ''d(h)'' → ''sd'' * ''s'' + ''t(h)'' → ''sd'' (''cnúas'' + ''tiogh'' → ''cnúaisdiogh'', ''cneas'' + ''táobh'' → ''cneasdáobh'') ==== Velars ==== * ''gh'' + ''g(h)'' → ''g'' * ''g(h)'' + ''c(h)'' → ''c'' (''beag'' + ''ceann'' → ''beiceann'') * ''c'' + ''c'' → ''c'' (''leac'' + ''crúaidh'' → ''leacrúaidh'') * ''c'' + ''g'' → ''c'' (''beag'' + ''ceann'' → ''beiceann'') * broad ''ch'' + ''c'' → ''chc'' (''droch'' + ''cíall'' → ''droichcíall'', ''cloch'' + ''ceann'' → ''cloichceann'') * broad ''ch'' + ''g'' → ''chg'' (''cloch'' + ''gér'' → ''cloichgér'') * slender ''ch'' + ''c'' or ''g'' → ''c'' (''braich'' + ''glan'' → ''braclan'') === Between words === ==== Labials ==== ''b(h)'' delenites, and is delenited by, ''b(h), m(h), p'' * ''-m'' + ''bh-'' → ''-m b-'' (''um beól'' ‘in my mouth’, ''um'' stands for ''i'' + ''mo'' here) * ''-mh'' + ''mh-'' → ''-mh m-'' (''lámh mhín'' pronounced as if ''lámh mín'') * ''-m'' + ''p(h)-'' → ''-m p-'' (''um péin'', ''um páis'', ''um'' stands for ''i'' + ''mo'' here) * ''fh'' is '''not''' delenited by ''m'' or ''b'' (''do fháisg fear láimh '''um fhear''' n-óir'' ‘tightened his grip on a golden (chess-)man’) * ''f'' + ''m(h)/b(h)/p(h)'' → probably ''fm/fb/fp'' (but Mac Cárthaigh has no good examples; Ó hEódhasa in his ''RHG'' seems to claim in word boundary this can happen and delenition takes place) ==== Dentals (coronals) ==== * ''-d'' + ''th-'' → ''-d t-'' (''… dod thógbháil féin'' ‘… to raise yourself’ with ''thógbháil'' pronounced ''tógbháil'' – this is a continuation of example in ''s'') * ''-dh'' + ''th-'' → ''-dh t-'' (no examples) * ''-dh'' + ''dh-'' → ''-dh d-'' (no examples) That is: ''d(h)'' delenites following ''d(h), t(h)'' and is delenited by ''d(h), t(h), n, l, s''. * ''-l'' + ''th-'' → ''-l t-'' (''feóil the'' pronounced as if ''feóil te'') * ''-l'' + ''dh-'' → ''-l d-'' (''súil dhearg'' pronounced as if ''súil dearg'') * ''-n'' + ''dh-'' → ''-n d-'' (''bean dhubh'' pronounced as if ''bean dubh'') * ''-n'' + ''th-'' → ''-n t-'' (''bean throm'' pronounced as if ''bean trom'') ''N'' does '''not''' delenite ''s'', so ''-n'' + ''sh-'' → ''-n sh-'' (''bean sháor'' and not <s>''\*bean tsháor''</s>, and also generally not <s>''\*bean sáor''</s>) For ''t'' probably (but no examples in the tract): * ''-t'' + ''th-'' → ''-t th-'' * ''-th'' + ''th-'' → ''-th t-'' * ''-t'' + ''dh-'' → ''-t d-'' * ''-th'' + ''dh-'' → ''-th d-'' (generally ''th'' delenites following ''dh, th'' and is delenited after ''d(h), t(h), n, l, s'') * ''-s'' ''th-'' → ''-s t-'' (''as tú as dóthcha…'' ‘it is you who are most likely…’ – ''tú'' after copula and ''dóthcha'' after relative copula would be expected to be lenited) * ''-s'' ''dh-'' → ''-s d-'' (see ''as dóthcha'') The examples for ''-d t-, -s t-, -s d-'' are from a single sentence: ''as tū a[s] dōthcha dod thógbháil féin'' ‘it is you who are most likely to raise yourself’. ==== Velars ==== * ''-gh'' + ''g(h)-'' → ''-gh g-'' (''Ó Dalaigh gil'' pronounced even if written ''Ó Dalaigh ghil'') * ''-g'' + ''g(h)-'' → ''-g g-'' * ''-gh'' + ''c(h)-'' → ''-gh c-'' * ''-g'' + ''c(h)-'' → ''-g c-'' * ''-c(h)'' + ''ch-'' → ''-ch c-'' (''glac crúaidh'' pronounced with unlenited ''crúaidh'' even if written ''glac chrúaidh'') * ''-c(h)'' + ''gh-'' → ''-ch g-'' (''cloch gér'' pronounced with unlenited ''gér'' even if written ''cloch ghér'') == Footnotes == <references/> == References == === Editions of bardic tracts and articles about Classical Gaelic grammar === <references group="gr"> <ref name="BST" group="gr">Lambert McKenna (1944), ''Bardic Syntactical Tracts'', Dublin Institute For Advanced Studies</ref> <ref name="ling-training" group="gr">Brian Ó Cuív (1973), ''The Linguistic Training of the Mediaeval Irish Poet'', Dublin Institute For Advanced Studies</ref> <ref name="ABP" group="gr">Eoin Mac Cárthaigh (2014), ''The Art of Bardic Poetry: A New Edition of Irish Grammatical Tracts I'', Dublin Institute For Advanced Studies</ref> <ref name="sleagar" group="gr">Eoin Mac Cárthaigh (2015), ''Sléagar agus ‘genitives lenited in special circumstances’ i bhfilíocht na scol'' in ''Aon don Éigse'' (Coimhín Breatnach, Meidhbhín Ní Úrdail ed.), pp. 239–245, Dublin Institute For Advanced Studies</ref> <ref name="13th-c" group="gr">Pádraig Ó Macháin (2015), ''Aspects of bardic poetry in the thirteenth century'' in ''Aon don Éigse'' (Coimhín Breatnach, Meidhbhín Ní Úrdail ed.), pp. 91–125, Dublin Institute For Advanced Studies</ref> <ref name="IGT" group="gr">Osborn Bergin (1916–1955), ''Irish Grammatical Tracts'' in ''Ériu'', Supplement, vols. 8–17, Royal Irish Academy</ref> <ref name="SnaG" group="gr">Damian McManus (1994), ''An Nua-Ghaeilge Chlasaiceach'' in ''Stair na Gaeilge: in ómós do P[h]ádraig Ó Fiannachta'' (Kim McCone ed.), pp. 335–445, Coláiste Phádraig, Maigh Nuad</ref> <ref name="identification" group="gr">Damian McManus (2021), ''Identification copula clauses linking substantives of different gender in Early and Classical Irish'' in ''North American journal of Celtic studies'', vol. 5, issue 2, pp. 214–241, The Ohio State University Press, [https://doi.org/10.1353/cel.2021.0012 doi:10.1353/cel.2021.0012]</ref> </references> === Editions of bardic poetry and other texts === * Mícheál Hoyne (2018), ''Fuidheall Áir: Bardic poems on the Meic Dhiarmada of Magh Luirg, c. 1377 – c. 1637'', Dublin Institute For Advanced Studies * [https://bardic.celt.dias.ie/ Bardic Poetry Database] – a searchable online collection of bardic poetry <references group="ed"> <ref name="AiD">Lambert McKenna (1939), ''Aithdioghluim Dána: a miscellany of Irish bardic poetry, historical and religious, including the historical poems of the duanaire in the Yellow Book of Lecan'', vol. 1 (introduction and text) and 2 (translation, notes, vocabulary), Dublin</ref> <ref name="Trí-Bior">Geoffrey Keating (17th c.) ''Trí Bior-Ghaoithe An Bháis'', [https://archive.org/details/tribiorghaoitheb00keat/ edited by Robert Atkinson, published in 1890], Royal Irish Academy, Dublin</ref> </references> [[Category:Classical Gaelic]] [[Category:Early Modern Irish]] [[Category:Early Modern Gaelic]]

Distreiñ d'ar bajenn Notes on Classical Gaelic Grammar.