Revision as of 02:52, 2 February 2022

The main page for describing the Déise dialect of Irish

Morphosyntax

Verbs

Analytic and Synthetic Forms

South Tipperary

In the variety of Déise Irish that was spoken in South Tipperary, the following conjugations of the verb bí along with the most typical analytic and synthetic forms are given: ^{[note 1]}

Conjugation of bí in South Tipperary
Stem Form	1st Sg.	2nd Sg.	3rd Masc. Sg.	3rd Fem. Sg.	1st Pl.	2nd Pl.	3rd Pl.	Conjugation Category
thá	thá me	thá tu ^{[note 2]}	thá sé	thá sí	tháimíd	thá sibh	thá siad	indicative present independent affirmative
nín	nín me ^{[note 3]}	nín tu	nín sé	nín sí	nínimíd ^{[note 4]}	nín sibh	nín siad	indicative present independent negative
fuil	fuil me	fuil tu	fuil sé	fuil sí	fuilimíd	fuil sibh	fuil siad	indicative present dependent
bhí	bhí me	bhí tu	bhí sé	bhí sí	bhíomar ^{[note 5]}	bhíobhair	bhíodar	indicative past independent
raibh	raibh me	raibh tu	raibh sé	raibh sí	raibheamar ^{[note 5]}	raibheabhair	raibheadar	indicative past dependent
beidh	beidh me	beidh tu	beidh sé	beidh sí	beimíd	beidh sibh	beidh siad	indicative future
bíonn	bím	bíonn tu	bíonn sé	bíonn sí	bímíd	bíonn sibh	bíonn siad	indicative present habitual
bhíodh	bhínn	bhítheá	bhíodh sé	bhíodh sí	bhímíst	bhíodh sibh	bhídís	indicative past habitual
bheadh	bheinn	bheitheá	bheadh sé	bheadh sí	bheimíst	bheadh sibh	bheidís	conditional

Note: as is typical throughout Déise Irish, the interrogatives an bhfuil? and cá bhfuil? are pronounced as buil? (dropping the an particle) and cáil? (merging cá and bhfuil) respectively; otherwise, the pronunciation of bhfuil is generally as expected.

Prepositions

Prepositional Pronouns

Prepositions and their prepositional pronouns
Preposition	1st Sg.	2nd Sg.	3rd Masc. Sg.	3rd Fem. Sg.	1st Pl.	2nd Pl.	3rd Pl.
aige ^{[note 6]} ^{[note 7]}	agam	agat	aige	aici	againn	agaibh	acu
ar ^{[note 8]} ^{[note 9]}	orm ^{[note 10]}	ort	air	uirthi or uirthí	eirinn ^{[note 11]} or orthainn or orainn	oraibh ^{[note 12]}	ora ^{[note 13]} or ortha
as	asam	asat	as	aiste	asainn	asaibh	asta
chún	chúm	chút	chuige	chúithe	chúinn	chúibh	chútha
de or dhe ^{[note 14]}	díom or dhíom	díot or dhíot	de or dhe	di or dhi	dínn or dhínn	díbh or dhíbh	díobh or dhíobh
do or dho ^{[note 14]}	dom or dhom ^{[note 15]}	doit or dhoit	do or dho ^{[note 16]}	di or dhi ^{[note 17]}	dúinn or dhúinn	díbh or dhíbh	dóibh or dhóibh
fé	fúm	fút	fé or féig or féighe	fúithi	fúinn ^{[note 18]}	fúibh ^{[note 18]}	fútha
i ^{[note 19]}	ionam ^{[note 20]}	ionat ^{[note 21]}	ann ^{[note 22]}	inti	ionainn ^{[note 23]}	ionaibh ^{[note 24]}	iontu or annta
idir ^{[note 25]} ^{[note 26]}	-	-	-	-	eadarainn	eadaraibh	eatarra
le or lé	liom	leat	leis	léithe or léi	linn	libh	leotha or leo
ó	bhuam or bhuaim or uam or uaim	bhuait or uait	bhuaidh or uaidh	bhuaithe or uaithe	bhuainn or uainn	bhuaibh or uaibh	bhuatha or uatha
roimh (roi) or roimhigh (roig) or roimhe	romham (rúm)	romhat (rút)	roimhigh (roig) or roimhe	rúimpe or roimpe	romhainn (rúinn)	romhaibh (rúibh)	rúmpa or rompa
thar or thear	thorm or thearm	thorat or thearat	theiris or thairis or theairis or thiris	thóirste or thóiste	thorainn or thearainn or theirinn or thirinn	thoraibh or thearaibh	thórsta or thósta
trí	tríom	tríot	tríd	tríthe	trínn	tríbh	tríotha
um ^{[note 27]}	iomam or umam	iomat or umat	imigh or uimigh	ímpe or oimpe	iomainn or umainn	iomaibh or umaibh	iompa or umpa

Initial Mutations

Initial Mutations of Nouns

Following Simple Prepositions ^{[note 28]}

Without the Article

Lenition

The following simple prepositions cause lenition: ^{[note 29]}

ar
de
do
fé
idir
mar
ó
thear ^{[note 30]}
trí
um

Eclipsis

The following simple prepositions cause eclipsis:

in ^{[note 31]}

h-Prothesis

The following simple prepositions cause h-prothesis:

le ^{[note 32]}
go

No Mutation

The following simple prepositions cause no mutation:

aige
as ^{[note 33]}
go dtí, dtí
roimh, roimhig

With the Singular Article ^[7]

Non-verbal nouns are affected by one of two forms of mutation, lenition or eclipsis, or no mutation, following a combination of a simple preposition and the singular article.

Simple Preposition and Article Combinations

The following simple prepositions with singular articles are found in Déise Irish:

aige ‘n,
ar an,
as an,
de ‘n,
do ‘n,
fé ‘n,
ó ‘n,
roimh ‘n,
(go) dtí ‘n,
leis an,
thear an,
tríd an,
and ins an.

Lenition

Under this context, the following consonants are affected by lenition:

b to bh,
p to ph,
g to gh,
c to ch,
and s to ts. ^{[note 34]}

Eclipsis

Under this context, the following consonants are affected by eclipsis:

b to mb,
p to bp,
g to ng,
c to gc,
and f to bhf.

No Mutation

Under this context, the following consonants which can appear as unmutated initials in nouns^{[note 35]} are not affected by mutation:

d,
t,
m,
n,
l,
r
or h.

Contributing Factors

The following factors contribute towards determining the type of mutation used on the initial of the noun:

The form of the preposition when used with the article,^{[note 36]} whether it ends in a vowel or a consonant.
The initial consonant of the noun:
- b, g or f
- p or c
- s ^{[note 34]}

General Rules

b, g and f undergo eclipsis following all preposition and article combinations.
s, only in the case of feminine nouns^{[note 34]}, undergoes lenition following all preposition and article combinations. It does not mutate if the noun is masculine.
p and c undergo lenition following ins a’ (or sa).
p and c undergo eclipsis following all other preposition and article combinations where the prepositional form ends in a consonant.
p and c undergo lenition following all preposition and article combinations where the prepositional form ends in a vowel.

Initial mutations caused by preposition + singular article
	Noun Initial
	b	g	f	p	c	s ^{[note 34]}
aige ‘n	E	E	E	L	L	L
de ‘n	E	E	E	L	L	L
do ‘n	E	E	E	L	L	L
fé ‘n	E	E	E	L	L	L
ó ‘n	E	E	E	L	L	L
roimh ‘n	E	E	E	L	L	L
dtí ‘n	E	E	E	L	L	L
ar a’	E	E	E	E	E	L
as a’	E	E	E	E	E	L
leis a’	E	E	E	E	E	L
thear a’	E	E	E	E	E	L
tríd a’	E	E	E	E	E	L
ins a’	E	E	E	L	L	L

Deviations to the Rules

Contrary to rule #1, a speaker in South Tipperary had a tendency to lenite initial b and g, but his usage of lenition in this context was inconsistent and he regularly used eclipsis instead.
Contrary to rule #3, ins an (or sa) had a greater tendency to cause eclipses on initial p and c in South Tipperary, but lenition among the speakers from this area was also noted. Eclipsis has also been noted among speakers from Waterford, but this isn’t typical and might only occur with certain words and as an alternating pronunciation.
Contrary to rule #5, p has a tendency to not undergo lenition, but this can be a case of alternating pronunciations as recorded among native Déise Irish speakers.

Notes

↑ Ó Maolchathaigh specifically details the paradigms for the forms bhí, thá, beidh, bheadh and bhíodh (alongside a paradigm for bhuail which functions exactly the same as the paradigm for bhí).^[1] The remaining paradigms are retrieved elsewhere^[2] or presumed by analogy.
↑ Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives thár as a form in conas tathár?.^[2] Ó Maolchathaigh gives táir as a form in conas táir?.^[3]
↑ Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives nínim.^[2]
↑ Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives nínmíd.^[2]
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 While Ó Maolchathaigh had -amar endings, Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna had -amair endings.^[4]
↑ The form age is actually the same as the 3rd person masculine singular form aige, but spelled this way (by some people) to distinguish between the two in writing. Though often others will just use the more standard form ag in writing.
↑ aige can reduce to aig’, ‘ge or ‘g’; aige is used when the preceding word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a consonant; aig’ is used when the preceding word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a vowel; ‘ge is used when the preceding word ends with a vowel (or in initial position) and the following word begins with a consonant; ‘g’ is used when the preceding word ends with a vowel (or in initial position) and the following word begins with a vowel. aige and its pronominal forms have the stress on the second syllable and all are prone to dropping the initial vowel in initial position or when preceded by a word ending in a vowel, e.g. ‘gam, ‘gat, ‘ge, ‘ci, ‘gainn, ‘gaibh and ‘cu.
↑ The form ar is actually the same as the 3rd person masculine singular form air, but spelled this way to distinguish between the two in writing.
↑ Unlike aige, the stress can vary between the first or second syllable among the pronominal forms, often dropping the initial vowel, as in the 1st person singular rom, and when the initial vowel in the monosyllabic forms can be elided by a preceding vowel, as in the 2nd person singular ‘rt.
↑ Sometimes reduced to rom.
↑ Sometimes reduced to ‘rinn.
↑ Sometimes reduced to ‘ribh.
↑ Sometimes reduced to ‘ra.
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 Other than the pronominal forms (except for the 2nd person plural), de and do are indistinguishable. ‘ge, the reduced form of aige, is sometimes used by some speakers due to analogous delenition of dhe or dho.
↑ Emphatic form dúmhsa or dhúmhsa.
↑ Emphatic form dósan or dhósan.
↑ Emphatic form dísin or dhísin.
↑ ^18.0 ^18.1 Sheehan gives nothing for the 1st and 2nd person plural pronominal forms of fé.^[5]
↑ In the pronominal forms, the initial syllable is often unstressed and can by elided by preceding vowels..
↑ Often reduced to ‘num. The general emphatic form is numsa.
↑ The general emphatic form is nutsa.
↑ The general emphatic form is on.
↑ Sometimes reduced to ‘nainn.
↑ Sometimes reduced to ‘naibh.
↑ Often reduced to‘dir.
↑ idir has no conjugated forms for the singular persons.
↑ The quality of the initial vowel in the prepositional pronouns depends on the quality of a preceding consonant.
↑ Simple prepositions can take either the nominative or dative form of the following noun, the latter being more traditional in Munster grammar.
↑ f generally avoids being lenited.
↑ thear does not cause lenition when used to denote the physical passing of an object or place.
↑ Eclipsis of nouns beginning with b have both the m and the b pronounced, e.g. i mBéarla.
↑ le causes no mutation in South Tipperary.^[6]
↑ as causes lenition in South Tipperary.^[6]
↑ ^34.0 ^34.1 ^34.2 ^34.3 Only affects feminine nouns with initial s; masculine nouns are not mutated.
↑ Not considering cases where word borrowings that use other letters, but these are generally not mutated anyway.
↑ For example, the preposition le becomes leis when combined with the article.

Bibliography

Breatnach, R. B. (1961). "Initial Mutation of Substantives after Preposition + Singular Article in Déise Irish". Éigse: A Journal of Irish Studies. IX (IV). The National University of Ireland.
Breatnach, R. B. (1984). Seana-Chaint na nDéise II: Studies in the Vocabulary and Idiom of Déise Irish based mainly on material collected by Archbishop Michael Sheehan (1870-1945). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
de Bhial, T. (1985). A Cabhsa: 2,000 abairtí samplacha Gaeilge. An Gúm.
Ó Cionnfhaolaidh, M. (1956). Beatha Mhichíl Turraoin: Maille le Sceulta agus Seanachas. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
Ó Cuirrín, S. (1936). "Beirt Dhéiseach". Beirt Dhéiseach mar atá: Sceul nua-cheaptha, agus Trí Sceulta arna dtiontódh ó theangthacha eile. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
Ó Cuív, B. (1993). Irish Dialects and Irish-Speaking Districts: Three Lectures (1993 reprint). School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Ó Fiannusa, P. (2008). Ghaibh a Leithéid an tSlí Tráth (second edition). Cló Chois Móire.
Ó hAirt, D. (1988). Díolaim Dhéiseach. Acadamh Ríoga na hÉireann, Baile Athá Cliath.
Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (unpublished). An Gleann is a Raibh Ann (one of two original manuscripts).
Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1938). "Eachtra Shéimín Paor". As na Ceithre hÁirdibh: cnuasach gearr-scéal. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1953). Dualgas Pheadair Bhig. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1974). An Gleann agus a Raibh Ann (1974 edition). An Clóchomhar Tta. Dundalgen Press.
O'Rahilly, T. F. (1988). Irish Dialects Past and Present: with Chapters on Scottish and Manx (1988 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Sheehan, Most Rev. M. (1944). Sean-Chaint na nDéise: the Idiom of Living Language (second edition). The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Tóibín, N. (1979). Duanaire Déiseach (second edition). Sáirséal agus Dill, Baile Átha Cliath.
Wagner, H. (1981). Linguistic Atlas and Survey of Irish Dialects: Vol. I. Introduction, 300 maps (1981 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Wagner, H. (1982). Linguistic Atlas and Survey of Irish Dialects: Vol. II. The Dialects of Munster (1982 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Ward, A. (1974). The Grammatical Structure of Munster Irish. University of Dublin.

References

↑ Ó Maolchathaigh unpublished, p. 320
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 Wagner 1982, p. 44
↑ Ó Maolchathaigh unpublished, p. 123
↑ Wagner 1982, p. 38
↑ Sheehan 1944, p. 24
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 Ó Maolchathaigh 1974, p. 228
↑ Breatnach 1961, pp. 217-222.

[South_Tipp_verbs-1] Ó Maolchathaigh specifically details the paradigms for the forms bhí, thá, beidh, bheadh and bhíodh (alongside a paradigm for bhuail which functions exactly the same as the paradigm for bhí).^[1] The remaining paradigms are retrieved elsewhere^[2] or presumed by analogy.

[th.C3.A1ir-4] Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives thár as a form in conas tathár?.^[2] Ó Maolchathaigh gives táir as a form in conas táir?.^[3]

[n.C3.ADnim-6] Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives nínim.^[2]

[n.C3.ADnm.C3.ADd-7] Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna gives nínmíd.^[2]

[-amair-8] 5.0 ^5.1 While Ó Maolchathaigh had -amar endings, Míchéal Ó Maoldhamhna had -amair endings.^[4]

[10] The form age is actually the same as the 3rd person masculine singular form aige, but spelled this way (by some people) to distinguish between the two in writing. Though often others will just use the more standard form ag in writing.

[11] aige can reduce to aig’, ‘ge or ‘g’; aige is used when the preceding word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a consonant; aig’ is used when the preceding word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a vowel; ‘ge is used when the preceding word ends with a vowel (or in initial position) and the following word begins with a consonant; ‘g’ is used when the preceding word ends with a vowel (or in initial position) and the following word begins with a vowel. aige and its pronominal forms have the stress on the second syllable and all are prone to dropping the initial vowel in initial position or when preceded by a word ending in a vowel, e.g. ‘gam, ‘gat, ‘ge, ‘ci, ‘gainn, ‘gaibh and ‘cu.

[12] The form ar is actually the same as the 3rd person masculine singular form air, but spelled this way to distinguish between the two in writing.

[13] Unlike aige, the stress can vary between the first or second syllable among the pronominal forms, often dropping the initial vowel, as in the 1st person singular rom, and when the initial vowel in the monosyllabic forms can be elided by a preceding vowel, as in the 2nd person singular ‘rt.

[14] Sometimes reduced to rom.

[15] Sometimes reduced to ‘rinn.

[16] Sometimes reduced to ‘ribh.

[17] Sometimes reduced to ‘ra.

[de_and_do-18] 14.0 ^14.1 Other than the pronominal forms (except for the 2nd person plural), de and do are indistinguishable. ‘ge, the reduced form of aige, is sometimes used by some speakers due to analogous delenition of dhe or dho.

[19] Emphatic form dúmhsa or dhúmhsa.

[20] Emphatic form dósan or dhósan.

[21] Emphatic form dísin or dhísin.

[f.C3.A9_pronoun-22] 18.0 ^18.1 Sheehan gives nothing for the 1st and 2nd person plural pronominal forms of fé.^[5]

[23] In the pronominal forms, the initial syllable is often unstressed and can by elided by preceding vowels..

[24] Often reduced to ‘num. The general emphatic form is numsa.

[25] The general emphatic form is nutsa.

[26] The general emphatic form is on.

[27] Sometimes reduced to ‘nainn.

[28] Sometimes reduced to ‘naibh.

[29] Often reduced to‘dir.

[30] idir has no conjugated forms for the singular persons.

[31] The quality of the initial vowel in the prepositional pronouns depends on the quality of a preceding consonant.

[33] Simple prepositions can take either the nominative or dative form of the following noun, the latter being more traditional in Munster grammar.

[34] rally avoids being lenited.

[35] thear does not cause lenition when used to denote the physical passing of an object or place.

[36] Eclipsis of nouns beginning with b have both the m and the b pronounced, e.g. i mBéarla.

[le_mutation-37] uses no mutation in South Tipperary.^[6]

[as_mutation-39] s causes lenition in South Tipperary.^[6]

[feminine_nouns-41] 34.0 ^34.1 ^34.2 ^34.3 Only affects feminine nouns with initial s; masculine nouns are not mutated.

[42] Not considering cases where word borrowings that use other letters, but these are generally not mutated anyway.

[43] For example, the preposition le becomes leis when combined with the article.

[.C3.93Munp320-2] Ó Maolchathaigh unpublished, p. 320

[W82p44-3] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 Wagner 1982, p. 44

[.C3.93Munp123-5] Ó Maolchathaigh unpublished, p. 123

[W82p38-9] Wagner 1982, p. 38

[S44p24-32] Sheehan 1944, p. 24

[.C3.93M74p228-38] 6.0 ^6.1 Ó Maolchathaigh 1974, p. 228

[40] Breatnach 1961, pp. 217-222.

[note 1]

[note 2]

[note 3]

[note 4]

[note 5]

[note 6]

[note 7]

[note 8]

[note 9]

[note 10]

[note 11]

[note 12]

[note 13]

[note 14]

[note 15]

[note 16]

[note 17]

[note 18]

[note 19]

[note 20]

[note 21]

[note 22]

[note 23]

[note 24]

[note 25]

[note 26]

[note 27]

[note 28]

[note 29]

[note 30]

[note 31]

[note 32]

[note 33]

[7]

[note 34]

[note 35]

[note 36]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

@@ Line 517: / Line 517: @@
 * Breatnach, R. B. (1961). "Initial Mutation of Substantives after Preposition + Singular Article in Déise Irish". ''Éigse: A Journal of Irish Studies''. '''IX''' (IV). The National University of Ireland.
 * Breatnach, R. B. (1984). ''Seana-Chaint na nDéise II: Studies in the Vocabulary and Idiom of Déise Irish based mainly on material collected by Archbishop Michael Sheehan (1870-1945)''. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
+* de Bhial, T. (1985). ''A Cabhsa: 2,000 abairtí samplacha Gaeilge''. An Gúm.
+* Ó Cionnfhaolaidh, M. (1956). ''Beatha Mhichíl Turraoin: Maille le Sceulta agus Seanachas''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
+* Ó Cuirrín, S. (1936). "Beirt Dhéiseach". ''Beirt Dhéiseach mar atá: Sceul nua-cheaptha, agus Trí Sceulta arna dtiontódh ó theangthacha eile''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
+* Ó Cuív, B. (1993). ''Irish Dialects and Irish-Speaking Districts: Three Lectures'' (1993 reprint). School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
+* Ó Fiannusa, P. (2008). ''Ghaibh a Leithéid an tSlí Tráth'' (second edition). Cló Chois Móire.
+* Ó hAirt, D. (1988). ''Díolaim Dhéiseach''. Acadamh Ríoga na hÉireann, Baile Athá Cliath.
 * Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (unpublished). ''An Gleann is a Raibh Ann'' (one of two original manuscripts).
+* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1938). "Eachtra Shéimín Paor". ''As na Ceithre hÁirdibh: cnuasach gearr-scéal''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
+* Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1953). ''Dualgas Pheadair Bhig''. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath.
 * Ó Maolchathaigh, S. (1974). ''An Gleann agus a Raibh Ann'' (1974 edition). An Clóchomhar Tta. Dundalgen Press.
+* O'Rahilly, T. F. (1988). ''Irish Dialects Past and Present: with Chapters on Scottish and Manx'' (1988 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
 * Sheehan, Most Rev. M. (1944). ''Sean-Chaint na nDéise: the Idiom of Living Language'' (second edition). The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
+* Tóibín, N. (1979). ''Duanaire Déiseach'' (second edition). Sáirséal agus Dill, Baile Átha Cliath.
 * Wagner, H. (1981). ''Linguistic Atlas and Survey of Irish Dialects: Vol. I. Introduction, 300 maps'' (1981 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
 * Wagner, H. (1982). ''Linguistic Atlas and Survey of Irish Dialects: Vol. II. The Dialects of Munster'' (1982 edition). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.

Difference between revisions of "Irish/Déise Irish"

Revision as of 02:52, 2 February 2022

Contents

Morphosyntax

Verbs

Analytic and Synthetic Forms

South Tipperary

Prepositions

Prepositional Pronouns

Initial Mutations

Initial Mutations of Nouns

Following Simple Prepositions ^{[note 28]}

Without the Article

Lenition

Eclipsis

h-Prothesis

No Mutation

With the Singular Article ^[7]

Simple Preposition and Article Combinations

Lenition

Eclipsis

No Mutation

Contributing Factors

General Rules

Deviations to the Rules

Notes

Bibliography

References

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Difference between revisions of "Irish/Déise Irish"

Revision as of 02:52, 2 February 2022

Morphosyntax

Verbs

Analytic and Synthetic Forms

South Tipperary

Prepositions

Prepositional Pronouns

Initial Mutations

Initial Mutations of Nouns

Following Simple Prepositions [note 28]

Without the Article

Lenition

Eclipsis

h-Prothesis

No Mutation

With the Singular Article [7]

Simple Preposition and Article Combinations

Lenition

Eclipsis

No Mutation

Contributing Factors

General Rules

Deviations to the Rules

Notes

Bibliography

References

Navigation menu

Search

Following Simple Prepositions ^{[note 28]}

With the Singular Article ^[7]