Difference between revisions of "User:Erisceres/Chronological Developments in the Celtic Languages"

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== Proto-Indo-European ==
== Proto-Indo-European ==


=== Non-Syllabic Consonants ===
=== Non-Syllabic Phonemes and Their Syllabic Allophones ===


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ PIE Plosives<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 53-60.</ref>
|+ PIE Plosives<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 53-60.</ref>
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Non-Syllabic
|- class="small"
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Coronal
! rowspan="2" | Coronal
! colspan="3" | Dorsal
! colspan="3" | Dorsal
|- class="small"
|- class="small"
! Palatal
! Palatovelar
! Velar
! Velar
! Labiovelar
! Labiovelar
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ PIE Fricatives
|+ PIE Fricatives
! rowspan="1" |
! rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" | Non-Syllabic
! rowspan="4" |
! Syllabic
|- class="small"
! Coronal
! Coronal
! Laryngeal<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 62-4</ref>
! Postvelar<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 62-4</ref><ref group="note">{{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>H''}} covers all potential non-syllabic postvelars.</ref>
! Postvelar<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 62</ref><ref group="note">{{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>H̩''}} covers all potential syllabic postvelars.</ref><ref group="note">The syllabic postvelars are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.</ref>
|-
|-
! Sibilant<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 60</ref>
! Sibilant<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 60</ref>
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>s''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>s''}}
|
|  
|  
|-
|-
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|  
|  
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h̩₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h̩₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h̩₃''}}
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ PIE Sonorants<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 60-1</ref>
|+ PIE Sonorants
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Non-Syllabic<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 60-1</ref>
! rowspan="7" |  
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Syllabic
|- class="small"
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Coronal
! rowspan="2" | Coronal
! colspan="2" | Dorsal
! colspan="2" | Dorsal
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Coronal
! colspan="2" | Short Monophthong<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 62, 66</ref><ref group="note">These vowels are allophonic to their non-syllabic semivowel counterparts.</ref>
|- class="small"
|- class="small"
! Palatal
! Palatal
! Labiovelar
! Labiovelar
! Front Unrounded
! Back Rounded
|-
|-
! Lateral
! Lateral
|  
|  
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>l''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>l''}}
|
|
! Lateral<ref name="F09pp61-2">Fortson 2009, pp. 61-2</ref><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants">The syllabic liquids and nasals are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.</ref>
|
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>l̩''}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>r''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>r''}}
|
|
! Rhotic<ref name="F09pp61-2"/><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants"/>
|
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>r̩''}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
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| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
|
|
! Nasal<ref name="F09pp61-2"/><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants"/>
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m̩''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n̩''}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|  
|  
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>y''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>w''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>w''}}
! Close
|
|
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>i''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
|}
|}


=== Vowels and Syllabic Consonants ===
=== Syllabic Phonemes ===
 
To do
 
=== Onset Clusters ===
 
The following onset clusters<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 64-6</ref> are possible in PIE phonotactics:
 
==== Plosive Initial ====
 
* plosive + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pro''}} "forward"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pneu-''}} "breath"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>tjeɡʷ-''}} "revere"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dleɡʱ-''}} "engage oneself"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱwer-''}} "door"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲneh₃-''}} "know"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷrei-''}} "buy"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷjeh₃-''}} "live"
* voiceless labial plosive + voicless coronal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pter-''}} "wing"
* voiceless coronal plosive + voiceless dorsal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>tkʲei-''}} "settle"
* voiceless labial plosive + sibilant + voiceless coronal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pster-''}} "sneeze"
 
==== Sibilant Initial ====
 
* sibilant + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sreu-''}} "flow"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sjuH-''}} "sew"
* sibilant + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>spend-''}} "pour a libation"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>skʲeh₂i-''}} "shadow"
* sibilant + postvelar
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sh₂eh₁-i-''}} "bind"
* sibilant + plosive + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>splei-''}} "split"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>strenɡ-''}} "squeeze, tie"
 
==== Postvelar Initial ====
 
* postvelar + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁leudʱ-''}} "go"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁jeh₁-''}} "throw"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂wes-''}} "spend the night"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂ner-''}} "man"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃meiɡʲʱ-''}} "urinate"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃reɡʲ-''}} "stretch out the hands"
* postvelar + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃bʱel-''}} "be of use"
* postvelar + sibilant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁sih₁-''}} "be" (optative pl. stem)
* postvelar + sibilant + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂ster-''}} "star"
* postvelar + sibilant + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁sjeh₁-''}} "be" (optative sg. stem)
 
==== Sonorant Initial ====
 
* labial or labiovelar sonorant + coronal sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mleuh₂-''}} "speak"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mreɡʲʱu-''}} "short"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mneh₂-''}} "be mindful"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>wleikʷ-''}} "flowing, liquid"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>wreh₂d-''}} "branch, root"
 
== Dialectal Developments in Late Proto-Indo-European ==
 
The palatovelar plosives merged with the velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189">Stifter 2017, p. 1189</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲʱ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲ''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲ''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲʱ''}} from the phonemic inventory.'''
 
== Developments in Argument for Italo-Celtic ==
 
To do
 
== Developments in Early Proto-Celtic ==
 
Following the palatovelar-velar plosive merger, sequences of palatovelar plosives followed by labiovelar semivowels would merge with the labiovelar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kw'' (< ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲw'') > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡw'' (< ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲw'') > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱw'' (< ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲʱw'') > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ''}}
 
The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a palatal semivowel, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
 
The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a coronal nasal, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
 
The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a close back rounded vowel, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
 
Following the above developments, the voiced labiovelar plosive merged with the voiced labial plosive:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}} from the phonemic inventory.'''
 
Then the murmured labiovelar plosive became the Proto-Celtic voiced labiovelar plosive:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ''}} and returned {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}} to the phonemic inventory.'''
 
There were sporadic cases of devoicing plosives in word initial position:<ref name="S17p1190">Stifter 2017, p. 1190</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>p'' /''#_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>t'' /''#_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /''#_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' /''#_''}}
 
=== Lenition: Scenario 1 ===
 
The remaining murmured plosives merged with their voiced counterparts:<ref name="S17pp1189-90">Stifter 2017, pp. 1189-90</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ''}} from the phonemic inventory.'''
 
The voiced plosives, in intervocalic environments, underwent allophonic spirantisation:<ref name="S17pp1189-90"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣʷ'' /''V_V''}}


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
=== Lenition: Scenario 2 ===
|+ PIE Syllabic Laryngeals<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 62</ref><ref group="note">The syllabic laryngeals are allophonic to their non-syllabic consonantal counterparts.</ref>
 
! rowspan="1" |
The murmured plosives underwent spirantisation:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
! Laryngeal
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β''}}
|-
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð''}}
! Fricative
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₃''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ''}} from, and added {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ''}} to, the phonemic inventory.'''
|}
 
These voiced fricatives would then undergo homorganic post-nasal fortition, merging with a voiced plosive:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' /''m_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' /''n_''}}
 
The voiced plosives, in intervocalic environments, underwent allophonic spirantisation, merging with the voiced fricatives, alongside the addition of a voiced labiovelar fricative:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣʷ'' /''V_V''}}


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
The voiced fricatives, in word initial position, merged with the voiced plosives:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
|+ PIE Syllabic Liquids and Nasals<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 61-2</ref><ref group="note">The syllabic liquids and nasals are allophonic to their non-syllabic consonantal counterparts.</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' /''#_''}}
! rowspan="1" |
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' /''#_''}}
! Labial
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''#_''}}
! Coronal
|-
! Lateral
|
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>l̥''}}
|-
! Rhotic
|
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>r̥''}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m̥''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n̥''}}
|}


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
Then, finally, the voiced fricatives, following liquids, merged with the voiced plosives:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
|+ PIE Syllabic Semivowels (short vowels)<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 62, 66</ref><ref group="note">The syllabic semivowels (short vowels) are allophonic to their non-syllabic consonantal counterparts.</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' /''{l, r}_''}}
! rowspan="1" |
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' /''{l, r}_''}}
! Front Unrounded
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''{l, r}_''}}
! Back Rounded
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ''}} from the phonemic inventory, making them allophones of {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ''}}, alongside {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣʷ''}} being an allophone of {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}}.'''
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>i''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
|}


= Developments from Proto-Celtic =
= Developments from Proto-Celtic =
Line 161: Line 298:
= Developments in Goidelic=
= Developments in Goidelic=


To do
Preceding Monumental Ogam?
 
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n'' /''_#''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>oj'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>aj'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>iː'' /''_#''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>t<sup>s</sup>'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>xs'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sː''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>o'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>a''}} in final syllables and in composition vowels
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>e'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>i'' /''ˈC_sV''}} (stressed syllable)
# Nasal fronting of {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>a''}}:
## {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>a'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æ'' /''_nC''}}
## {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>a'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æ'' /''_mC''}}
# Nasal raising of {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æ''}}:
## {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ænː'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>enː''}}
## {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æn'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>en'' /''_#''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>e'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æ'' /''_ɣ''}} except when the following syllable contains ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>CjV'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>CijV''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>VC.wV'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>VC.βV''}} where ''C'' is a single voiced consonant
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ow'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>aw'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>oː}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>i'' > ''∅'' /''_#''}}
 


== From Primitive Irish to Early Old Irish ==
== From Primitive Irish to Early Old Irish ==
Line 176: Line 331:
* McCone, K. (1996). "Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change". ''Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics''. Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, Saint Patrick’s College.
* McCone, K. (1996). "Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change". ''Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics''. Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, Saint Patrick’s College.
* Stifter, David (2006). ''Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners''. Syracuse University Press.
* Stifter, David (2006). ''Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners''. Syracuse University Press.
* Stifter, David (2017). "The phonology of Celtic". ''Handbook of Comparataive and Historical Indo-European Linguistics''. Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston.
* Thurneysen, R. (1946; 2003 reprint). ''A Grammar of Old Irish: Translated from the German by D.A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin, with supplement''. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Thurneysen, R. (1946; 2003 reprint). ''A Grammar of Old Irish: Translated from the German by D.A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin, with supplement''. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.


Latest revision as of 23:10, 15 September 2022

This page will detail the chronological developments of the Celtic languages, with a focus on Goidelic (for now).

From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic

Proto-Indo-European

Non-Syllabic Phonemes and Their Syllabic Allophones

PIE Plosives[1]
Non-Syllabic
Labial Coronal Dorsal
Palatovelar Velar Labiovelar
Tenuis *p *t *kʲ *k *kʷ
Voiced *b *d *ɡʲ *ɡ *ɡʷ
Murmured *bʱ *dʱ *ɡʲʱ *ɡʱ *ɡʷʱ
PIE Fricatives
Non-Syllabic Syllabic
Coronal Postvelar[2][note 1] Postvelar[3][note 2][note 3]
Sibilant[4] *s
Non-Sibilant *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ *h̩₁, *h̩₂, *h̩₃
PIE Sonorants
Non-Syllabic[5] Syllabic
Labial Coronal Dorsal Labial Coronal Short Monophthong[6][note 4]
Palatal Labiovelar Front Unrounded Back Rounded
Lateral *l Lateral[7][note 5] *l̩
Rhotic *r Rhotic[7][note 5] *r̩
Nasal *m *n Nasal[7][note 5] *m̩ *n̩
Semivowel *j *w Close *i *u

Syllabic Phonemes

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Onset Clusters

The following onset clusters[8] are possible in PIE phonotactics:

Plosive Initial

  • plosive + sonorant
    • e.g. *pro "forward"; *pneu- "breath"; *tjeɡʷ- "revere"; *dleɡʱ- "engage oneself"; *dʱwer- "door"; *ɡʲneh₃- "know"; *kʷrei- "buy"; *ɡʷjeh₃- "live"
  • voiceless labial plosive + voicless coronal plosive
    • e.g. *pter- "wing"
  • voiceless coronal plosive + voiceless dorsal plosive
    • e.g. *tkʲei- "settle"
  • voiceless labial plosive + sibilant + voiceless coronal plosive
    • e.g. *pster- "sneeze"

Sibilant Initial

  • sibilant + sonorant
    • e.g. *sreu- "flow"; *sjuH- "sew"
  • sibilant + plosive
    • e.g. *spend- "pour a libation"; *skʲeh₂i- "shadow"
  • sibilant + postvelar
    • e.g. *sh₂eh₁-i- "bind"
  • sibilant + plosive + sonorant
    • e.g. *splei- "split"; *strenɡ- "squeeze, tie"

Postvelar Initial

  • postvelar + sonorant
    • e.g. *h₁leudʱ- "go"; *h₁jeh₁- "throw"; *h₂wes- "spend the night"; *h₂ner- "man"; *h₃meiɡʲʱ- "urinate"; *h₃reɡʲ- "stretch out the hands"
  • postvelar + plosive
    • e.g. *h₃bʱel- "be of use"
  • postvelar + sibilant
    • e.g. *h₁sih₁- "be" (optative pl. stem)
  • postvelar + sibilant + plosive
    • e.g. *h₂ster- "star"
  • postvelar + sibilant + sonorant
    • e.g. *h₁sjeh₁- "be" (optative sg. stem)

Sonorant Initial

  • labial or labiovelar sonorant + coronal sonorant
    • e.g. *mleuh₂- "speak"; *mreɡʲʱu- "short"; *mneh₂- "be mindful"; *wleikʷ- "flowing, liquid"; *wreh₂d- "branch, root"

Dialectal Developments in Late Proto-Indo-European

The palatovelar plosives merged with the velar plosives:[9]

  • *kʲ, *k > *k
  • *ɡʲ, *ɡ > *ɡ
  • *ɡʲʱ, *ɡʱ > *ɡʱ

This removed *kʲ, *ɡʲ and *ɡʲʱ from the phonemic inventory.

Developments in Argument for Italo-Celtic

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Developments in Early Proto-Celtic

Following the palatovelar-velar plosive merger, sequences of palatovelar plosives followed by labiovelar semivowels would merge with the labiovelar plosives:[9]

  • *kw (< *kʲw) > *kʷ
  • *ɡw (< *ɡʲw) > *ɡʷ
  • *ɡʱw (< *ɡʲʱw) > *ɡʷʱ

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a palatal semivowel, became velar plosives:[9]

  • *kʷ > *k /_*j
  • *ɡʷ > *ɡ /_*j
  • *ɡʷʱ > *ɡʱ /_*j

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a coronal nasal, became velar plosives:[9]

  • *kʷ > *k /_*n
  • *ɡʷ > *ɡ /_*n
  • *ɡʷʱ > *ɡʱ /_*n

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a close back rounded vowel, became velar plosives:[9]

  • *kʷ > *k /_*u
  • *ɡʷ > *ɡ /_*u
  • *ɡʷʱ > *ɡʱ /_*u

Following the above developments, the voiced labiovelar plosive merged with the voiced labial plosive:[9]

  • *ɡʷ > *b

This removed *ɡʷ from the phonemic inventory.

Then the murmured labiovelar plosive became the Proto-Celtic voiced labiovelar plosive:[9]

  • *ɡʷʱ > *ɡʷ

This removed *ɡʷʱ and returned *ɡʷ to the phonemic inventory.

There were sporadic cases of devoicing plosives in word initial position:[10]

  • *b, *bʱ > *p /#_
  • *d, *dʱ > *t /#_
  • *ɡ, *ɡʱ > *k /#_
  • *ɡʷ > *kʷ /#_

Lenition: Scenario 1

The remaining murmured plosives merged with their voiced counterparts:[11]

  • *bʱ > *b
  • *dʱ > *d
  • *ɡʱ > *ɡ

This removed *bʱ, *dʱ and *ɡʱ from the phonemic inventory.

The voiced plosives, in intervocalic environments, underwent allophonic spirantisation:[11]

  • *b > *β /V_V
  • *d > *ð /V_V
  • *ɡ > *ɣ /V_V
  • *ɡʷ > *ɣʷ /V_V

Lenition: Scenario 2

The murmured plosives underwent spirantisation:[10]

  • *bʱ > *β
  • *dʱ > *ð
  • *ɡʱ > *ɣ

This removed *bʱ, *dʱ and *ɡʱ from, and added *β, *ð and *ɣ to, the phonemic inventory.

These voiced fricatives would then undergo homorganic post-nasal fortition, merging with a voiced plosive:[10]

  • *β > *b /m_
  • *ð > *d /n_

The voiced plosives, in intervocalic environments, underwent allophonic spirantisation, merging with the voiced fricatives, alongside the addition of a voiced labiovelar fricative:[10]

  • *b > *β /V_V
  • *d > *ð /V_V
  • *ɡ > *ɣ /V_V
  • *ɡʷ > *ɣʷ /V_V

The voiced fricatives, in word initial position, merged with the voiced plosives:[10]

  • *β > *b /#_
  • *ð > *d /#_
  • *ɣ > *ɡ /#_

Then, finally, the voiced fricatives, following liquids, merged with the voiced plosives:[10]

  • *β > *b /{l, r}_
  • *ð > *d /{l, r}_
  • *ɣ > *ɡ /{l, r}_

This removed *β, *ð and *ɣ from the phonemic inventory, making them allophones of *b, *d and *ɡ, alongside *ɣʷ being an allophone of *ɡʷ.

Developments from Proto-Celtic

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From Proto-Celtic to Gaulish

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From Proto-Celtic to Celtiberian

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From Proto-Celtic to Insular Celtic

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Developments from Insular Celtic

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From Insular Celtic to Common Brittonic

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From Insular Celtic to Primitive Irish

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Developments in Goidelic

Preceding Monumental Ogam?

  1. *m > *n /_#
  2. *oj, *aj > *iː /_#
  3. *ts, *xs > *sː
  4. *o > *a in final syllables and in composition vowels
  5. *e > *i /ˈC_sV (stressed syllable)
  6. Nasal fronting of *a:
    1. *a > *æ /_nC
    2. *a > *æ /_mC
  7. Nasal raising of *æ:
    1. *ænː > *enː
    2. *æn > *en /_#
  8. *e > *æ /_ɣ except when the following syllable contains *j
  9. *CjV > *CijV
  10. *VC.wV > *VC.βV where C is a single voiced consonant
  11. *ow, *aw > *oː
  12. *i > ∅ /_#


From Primitive Irish to Early Old Irish

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Notes

  1. ↑ *H covers all potential non-syllabic postvelars.
  2. ↑ *H̩ covers all potential syllabic postvelars.
  3. ↑ The syllabic postvelars are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.
  4. ↑ These vowels are allophonic to their non-syllabic semivowel counterparts.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 The syllabic liquids and nasals are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.

Bibliography

  • Fortson IV, B. W. (2009). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, 2nd Edition. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • McCone, K. (1996). "Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change". Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics. Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, Saint Patrick’s College.
  • Stifter, David (2006). Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners. Syracuse University Press.
  • Stifter, David (2017). "The phonology of Celtic". Handbook of Comparataive and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston.
  • Thurneysen, R. (1946; 2003 reprint). A Grammar of Old Irish: Translated from the German by D.A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin, with supplement. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.

References

  1. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 53-60.
  2. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 62-4
  3. ↑ Fortson 2009, p. 62
  4. ↑ Fortson 2009, p. 60
  5. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 60-1
  6. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 62, 66
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Fortson 2009, pp. 61-2
  8. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 64-6
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Stifter 2017, p. 1189
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Stifter 2017, p. 1190
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Stifter 2017, pp. 1189-90
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